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Block 1 Unit 1 A Brief History of Psychopathology

1. Explain the early supernatural approach of understanding psychopathology.

1. Ancient beliefs attributed abnormal behaviour to the disfavour of a supernatural power or the mischief of demons.
2. Throughout history, civilisations have held varying views on what are now considered mental disorders, with early explanations often attributing abnormal behaviour to supernatural forces.

2. Describe the early Greek contributions in development of biological models of psychopathology.

The early Greek contributions to biological models of psychopathology include those of Hippocrates, who classified mental illness into delirium, mania, paranoia, hysteria, and melancholia, resulting from four basic temperaments.

3. Explain the contribution of J.P. Grey and E. Kraeplin in development of psychopathology.

1. J.P. Grey and E. Kraeplin are 19th-century writers who contributed to biological models of psychopathology.
2. Emil Kraepelin's classification system was based on the clinical features of disorders: cause, course, and outcomes. His primary classifications were manic-depressive psychosis and dementia praecox.

4. Explain the early psychological approaches of understanding psychopathology.

• Early psychological approaches emphasized psychological, interpersonal, social, and cultural factors in explaining and treating abnormality.
• These approaches began with the moral and mental hygiene movement, which advocated humane care for institutionalised patients and encouraged social interaction.
• Pioneers in the mental health reforms were P. Pinel, William Tuke, Benjamin Rush and Dorothea Dix.

5. Explain the basic assumptions of humanistic approaches to psychopathology.

Humanistic theorists believe it is important to understand the obstacles that people encounter as they strive toward self-actualisation and authenticity.

6. Present an account of the theory of classical conditioning in explaining acquired fears and anxiety.

• Classical conditioning explains how phobias or excessive fears may be acquired. A neutral stimulus becomes associated with an aversive stimulus, leading to a conditioned response, such as a phobia.
• Watson demonstrated how a fear response could be acquired through classical conditioning, using the example of "Little Albert," who developed a fear response to a white rat after it was paired with a loud, aversive sound.

7. Explain the early supernatural approach of understanding psychopathology.

• Ancient beliefs attributed abnormal behaviour to the disfavour of a supernatural power or the mischief of demons.
• Throughout history, civilisations have held varying views on what are now considered mental disorders, with early explanations often attributing abnormal behaviour to supernatural forces.

8. Describe the contributions of biological models in the historical development of psychopathology.

• Early Greek contributions include Hippocrates, who classified mental illness.
• 19th-century contributors include J.P. Grey and E. Kraeplin. Kraepelin's system was based on clinical features of disorders.
• 20th-century concepts include insulin shock therapy and electroconvulsive therapy.

9. Explain the early psychological approaches of understanding psychopathology.

• Early psychological approaches stressed psychological, interpersonal, social and cultural factors in explaining and treating abnormality.
• These approaches began with the moral and mental hygiene movement, which advocated humane and responsible care of institutionalised patients and encouraged social interaction.
• Pioneers in the mental health reforms were P. Pinel, William Tuke, Benjamin Rush and Dorothea Dix.

10. Present an account of Freudian psychoanalytical theory in research and practice in psychopathology.

• The Freudian psychoanalytic theory includes an analysis of mental structures (id, ego, superego), levels of consciousness, stages of psychosexual development, and defence mechanisms.
• It posits that the thoughts, attitudes and behaviours of the id, ego and superego are often in a state of conflict called intra-psychic conflict.
• Psychoanalytic therapy involves reliving repressed fantasies and fears both in feeling and thought. This process includes transference, which is the projection of attitudes and emotions onto the analyst. Dream interpretation is also used to access repressed fears.
• Criticisms of Freudian theory include that the hypotheses are neither verifiable nor falsifiable, the theory is based on an inadequate conceptualisation of women's experiences, and it overemphasizes the role of sexuality.

• The humanistic approach emphasizes self-actualization and authenticity.
• Criticisms of the humanistic approach include that terms like intuition and reasoning could not be tested, this approach rejected animal research in psychology, and its concepts are sometimes not amenable to clear definition and verification.
• The source does not give a clear comparison with psychoanalysis and learning theories, but it does mention that psychodynamic perspectives reflect the views of Freud, while learning theorists posit that principles of learning explain both abnormal and normal behaviour.

12. Explain the behaviouristic approach to psychopathology.

• The behavioural perspective focuses on the role of learning in explaining both normal and abnormal behaviour.
• Abnormal behaviour is viewed as the acquisition or learning of maladaptive behaviours.
• The behavioural perspective is identified with Ivan Pavlov and John B. Watson.
• Classical conditioning, where a neutral stimulus becomes paired with an aversive stimulus, can lead to the development of phobias and other maladaptive behaviours.
• The learning perspective views abnormal behaviour as learned in the same way as normal behaviour, with differences in learning histories potentially leading to abnormal behaviours.

13. Give an account of insulin shock therapy and electroconvulsive therapy

Insulin shock therapy and electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) are 20th-century biological approaches to treating mental disorders.

• Insulin Shock Therapy:

  • This method involved inducing a coma in patients through the use of insulin.
  • The therapy was used frequently after physicians observed that some patients recovered.
  • However, the method was abandoned because it was considered dangerous, and it caused coma and even death.

• Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT):

  • ECT involves inducing brain seizures.
  • The therapy was used extensively but controversially, with some doctors using it to penalise difficult patients.
  • Despite the controversy, ECT is considered effective with suicidal patients.

These are no longer considered best practice.

14. Describe the Freudian topographical structure of personality.

Freudian Topographical Structure of Personality

According to Freud, the mind has three levels of consciousness:

• Conscious: This is the part of the mind we are aware of, and where the Ego resides. It is a small part of mental life.
• Preconscious/Subconscious: This comprises thoughts or activities that can easily be brought to consciousness with effort.
• Unconscious: The largest segment of the mind, it includes the Id, and is not easily accessible, yet it significantly influences behaviour. The Super-ego resides at all three levels of consciousness.

This structure, along with the mental structures of the id, ego, and superego, describes the Freudian topographical structure of personality.

15. Explain the importance of stages of psychosexual development in understanding psychopathology.

Importance of Stages of Psychosexual Development

Freud theorised that during childhood, individuals pass through several psychosexual stages of development. Each stage is a specific period where basic needs arise, and under or over-gratification at any stage can leave a strong impression, known as a fixation, or a psychopathology, which can be reflected throughout adult life. In each of these stages, the energy of sexual instinct, or libido, is situated in different parts of the body.

16. Give an account of the concepts of anxiety and defense mechanisms as explained by Freud.

Concepts of Anxiety and Defence Mechanisms

Anxiety and defense mechanisms as core elements of the psychoanalytic approach. Defence mechanisms are employed by the ego to manage internal conflicts and anxiety. Some defence mechanisms include:

• Reaction Formation: Overacting in the opposite way to the fear.
• Regression: Going back to acting as a child.
• Repression: Pushing uncomfortable thoughts into the subconscious.
• Sublimation: Redirecting 'wrong' urges into socially acceptable actions.

17. Elucidate the process of psychoanalytic therapy.

The Process of Psychoanalytic Therapy

Psychoanalytic therapy involves reliving repressed fantasies and fears, both in feeling and in thought. This includes:

• Transference: A projection of attitudes and emotions, originally directed towards parents, onto the analyst. This is considered necessary for successful treatment.
• Dream Interpretation: Accessing repressed fears through understanding the symbolic expressions of the hidden or latent content of dreams. This is achieved by understanding manifest content as symbolic expressions of the hidden or latent content.
• Free Association: Encouraging patients to talk freely about their problems, conflicts, and fears.

18. Describe the role of self-concept and congruence in development of unhealthy personality as explained by Carl Rogers.

Carl Rogers' concepts of self-concept and congruence are central to his theory of personality and the development of unhealthy personalities.

• Self-concept: This is defined as the "organised, consistent set of perceptions and beliefs about oneself". It includes all the ideas and values that characterise 'I' and 'me' and incorporates the perception and valuing of 'what I am' and 'what I can do'. The self-concept influences actions and how we see ourselves. The way we see ourselves may differ greatly from how others see us, and it is not always consistent with reality.

• Ideal-self: The sources explain that people want to behave in ways that are consistent with their self-image and reflect what they would like to be like, referred to as the ideal-self. The closer our self-image and ideal-self are, the more consistent or congruent we are, and the higher our sense of self-worth.

• Incongruence: A person is in a state of incongruence if some experiences are unacceptable and are denied or distorted in their self-image. This incongruence is a key factor in the development of an unhealthy personality.

  • People may use defence mechanisms like denial or repression to feel less threatened by undesirable feelings and to maintain their self-image.
  • For example, a person who feels possessive but doesn't want to see themselves as possessive may push that feeling out of their awareness, resulting in a self-image as a generous person.

• Organismic self: Rogers also talks about the 'organismic self', which includes all feelings and experiences, whether denied or accepted. The greater the gap between the organismic self and the self-concept, the greater the chance of confusion and maladjustment.

  • Incongruence can develop in two ways: between self-concept and organismic self, and between ideal-self and self-image.

• Congruence: A congruent person is someone whose self-concept reflects the inevitability of change and is therefore flexible. The closer a person's ideal-self is to their self-image, the more fulfilled and happier they will be.

In summary, Rogers' theory suggests that an unhealthy personality develops when there is a significant gap between a person’s self-concept and their actual experiences (organismic self) or their ideal self, leading to incongruence. This incongruence may result in maladaptive behaviours and psychological distress.

19. Explain the assumptions of learning theories regarding maladaptive behaviour.

Assumptions of Learning Theories Regarding Maladaptive Behaviour

Learning theories, particularly the behaviourist approach, assume that:

• Abnormal behaviour is learned in the same way as normal behaviour.
• Maladaptive behaviours are acquired through inappropriate learning.
• Abnormal behaviour itself is the problem, not a symptom of an underlying issue.
• Learning histories differ from other people.
• Classical and operant conditioning are the two key forms of learning that shape both normal and abnormal behaviours.

20. Elucidate that how the theory of operant conditioning explains abnormal behaviours.

Operant conditioning is a type of learning where responses are acquired and strengthened by their consequences. This means behaviours that are followed by positive consequences are more likely to be repeated, while those followed by negative consequences are less likely to occur again. 

Here's how this theory explains abnormal behaviours:

• Reinforcement:

  • Positive Reinforcement: Behaviours that lead to obtaining something desirable (positive reinforcers), such as food, money, or approval, are likely to be repeated. If a person learns to associate certain behaviours with gaining these rewards, they may repeat these behaviours, even if they are maladaptive.
  • Negative Reinforcement: Behaviours that lead to the removal or avoidance of something unpleasant (negative reinforcers), such as pain or disapproval, are also likely to be repeated. For example, if a person finds that avoiding social situations reduces anxiety, they might continue to avoid socialising, even though it is not adaptive.

• Punishment:

  • Punishments are aversive stimuli that decrease the likelihood of the behaviour they follow. However, the sources do not explicitly link punishment to the acquisition of maladaptive behaviour. Instead they suggest it can lead to an increase in antisocial behaviour.

• Lack of Reinforcement:

  • If a person's environment doesn't provide opportunities to learn new skills, they may struggle to obtain reinforcement. For example, a lack of social skills can reduce opportunities for social reinforcement, potentially leading to social isolation and depression.

• Learning and Maladaptive Behaviours: The sources highlight that abnormal behaviour is learned in much the same way as normal behaviour. From the learning perspective, maladaptive behaviour represents the acquisition of inappropriate behaviours. This implies that if a person learns maladaptive behaviours through operant conditioning, those behaviours become the problem themselves.

In summary, operant conditioning explains abnormal behaviours by focusing on how consequences shape and maintain actions. Maladaptive behaviours can become reinforced because they either produce positive rewards or help the individual avoid negative experiences, which then increases the likelihood of their repetition. The lack of reinforcement of positive, adaptive behaviour can also lead to maladaptive behaviour.

21. Describe the importance of cognitive behaviour theories in explaining abnormal behaviours.