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Block 1 Unit 3 Theoretical Approaches to Counseling

1. Differentiate between id, ego and superego.

• The sources explain that Freud described human nature using the concepts of the id, ego, and superego.
• The id is described as the "it" and is the original aspect of personality that is driven by instincts, demanding immediate gratification, and is primarily unconscious.
• The ego, or "I", is the rational part of the personality, which operates primarily at a conscious level, and mediates between the demands of the id and the reality of the external world, using defense mechanisms to manage conflict.
• The superego is the "above I", the moral aspect of personality that includes the values and standards of the society and is largely unconscious, containing the conscience and the ego ideal that guide behaviour, often in opposition to the id's impulses.

2. Describe the different defence mechanisms.

• Repression: This is where unacceptable or distressing thoughts and feelings are pushed out of consciousness, operating unconsciously.
• Displacement: This involves shifting feelings or impulses from a threatening target to a less threatening one.
• Projection: This is when unacceptable personal qualities or feelings are attributed to others.
• Reaction formation: In this mechanism, people behave in a way that is the opposite of their true feelings.
• Regression: This involves reverting to earlier, more immature behaviour under stress.
• Denial: This is when people are unable to face reality or admit an obvious truth.
• Rationalisation: This involves substituting a safe and reasonable explanation for unacceptable ones.
• Intellectualisation: This allows people to avoid thinking about the stressful, emotional aspect of a situation and focus on the intellectual components.

3. Differentiate between cognitive and behavioural approach to counselling;

• Behavioural approach is based on the idea that primary learning comes from experience and uses learning principles to eliminate unwanted behaviours.
• The cognitive approach focuses on the thoughts and beliefs of the client trying to identify those which create problems. Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) is an amalgam of cognitive therapy (CT) and behavioural therapy, focusing on current problems and how to solve them by identifying distorted or unhelpful thinking patterns, recognising and changing inaccurate beliefs, and changing behaviours.

4. Define psychoanalytic approach and its view on human nature.

The psychoanalytic approach, according to the sources, was developed by Freud, and its view of human nature is dynamic. It includes the conscious mind, the sub-conscious and the unconscious mind. The approach emphasises the role of unconscious material and early childhood experiences. It focuses on the interplay of the id, ego, and superego, with techniques aiming to bring unconscious conflicts into conscious awareness to resolve neurosis.

5. Describe the different techniques of psychoanalysis.

The core techniques of psychoanalysis include:

• Free association: This involves the client reporting immediately, without censoring any feelings or thoughts, to access unconscious material.
• Dream analysis: This is considered the first scientific approach to the study of dreams where clients report dreams to the counselor to analyse the manifest (obvious meaning) and latent (hidden meaning) content, to access unconscious material.
• Interpretation: This consists of the analyst explaining and teaching the client the meanings of their behaviour, dreams, free associations, and resistances to help the client understand past and present events.
• Analysis and Interpretation of Resistance: This is when clients block their thoughts or deny the importance of information, and psychoanalysts make use of these moments by attempting to help clients work through their resistance.
• Analysis of Transference: This involves the client projecting feelings onto the counselor which helps the client work with unresolved past experiences in present interaction.
• Maintaining the Analytical Framework: This includes procedural and stylistic factors such as analyst's anonymity, regular meetings, and concluding sessions in a timely way, which act as therapeutic factors.

6. Explain Adler’s perspective.

• Adlerian theory suggests that people are primarily motivated by social interest.
• Adlerian counselors act as diagnosticians, teachers, and models and try to assess why clients are oriented to certain ways of thinking and behaving.
• The counselor assesses this by gathering information on the family constellation and earliest memories.
• They share interpretations with clients, encouraging them to change faulty lifestyles, by developing a social interest.

7. Discuss the goals and techniques involved in behaviour approach to counselling.

• The goal of behavioural counselling is to help clients make good adjustments to life and achieve personal and professional objectives. This is done through setting mutually agreed-upon goals, breaking these down into smaller steps, and choosing appropriate methods for change.
• The techniques used in this approach include:
  • Systematic desensitisation: This pairs relaxation with previously feared stimuli to treat phobias.
  • Exposure: Which involves exposing the client to anxiety-provoking situations to reduce fear and avoidance.
• Aversion therapy: This involves pairing undesirable behaviors with aversive stimuli to reduce those behaviours.
• Operant conditioning: This uses reinforcement, modeling, and assertiveness training to change behaviour.

8. What is Transactional Analysis? Explain the role of counsellor in this technique?

• Transactional Analysis is a cognitive theory that explains how life experiences are recorded in our subconscious, affecting our behaviours that are designed to get reactions and determine how others feel about us. It posits that everyone has three ego states: Parent, Adult, and Child.
• The counsellor in transactional analysis acts initially as a teacher, providing tools for change in the present. They focus on 'here and now' problems, establish an egalitarian relationship, and help the client develop productive problem-solving behaviors.

9. Describe the techniques involved in Person Centered Approach.

The person-centered approach is grounded in the counsellor’s attitudes toward people. Techniques include:

• Unconditional positive regard: This means accepting the client non-judgmentally.
• Active and passive listening: This is about being present with the client and hearing what they say with careful attention.
• Reflection of thoughts and feelings: This is reflecting back to the client their thoughts and feelings to encourage self-exploration.
• Clarification: This involves making clear what is not fully understood by the counselor in the client's narrative.
• Summarising: This involves a counselor highlighting the main points of what the client has said to show understanding.
• Confrontation of contradictions: This involves making the client aware of inconsistencies they might not have recognised themselves.
• General or open leads that help client self exploration: This includes using open-ended questions to help the client come to their own conclusions about their situation.

10. Describe the important features of Existential therapy.

• The existential approach is a philosophical approach that helps clients search for value and meaning in life.
• It acknowledges the human challenge of temporary existence and the need to construct personal meaning.
• Key features include:
  • Emphasis on self-awareness and personal responsibility, rather than focusing on curing disorders or symptoms.
  • The counsellor acts as a facilitator, helping clients to explore their own values, assumptions, and ideals without imposing their own.
  • The use of self of the counsellor is key to the therapy.
  • The approach is flexible and can integrate techniques from other orientations.
  • The goal is to help individuals move beyond rigid roles and see their lives more clearly, making life-changing decisions to lead a more authentic life.

11. How do counselors use Rational Emotive therapy approach.

• In Rational Emotive Therapy (RET), counselors are active and direct instructors who teach and correct clients' cognitions.
• They challenge illogical and faulty statements, focusing on thoughts and beliefs that create problems and teach clients the anatomy of an emotion, showing them that feelings are a result of thoughts, not events.
• Techniques used include teaching, disputing irrational beliefs through cognitive, imaginal, and behavioural methods, and using syllogisms to demonstrate logical flaws. They also may use confrontation and encouragement.

12. Explain the different types of goals in psychoanalysis.

Psychoanalysis: Types of Goals

The goals of psychoanalysis vary depending on the client, but primarily focus on:

• Personal adjustment, usually inducing a reorganisation of internal forces within the person.
• Increased awareness of the unconscious, including repressed memories and painful wishes, to help clients understand the underlying causes of their problems.
• Working through unresolved developmental stages, which can help clients move forward and live more productively.
• Helping clients cope with the demands of society, particularly in areas of work and intimacy.
• Enabling individuals to deal with unconscious urges in a realistic and mature manner.
• Achieving insight into the psychodynamics underlying their problems to make adjustments in their lives.

13. How does Adlerian approach view human nature?

Adlerian Approach: View of Human Nature

The Adlerian approach views human nature as:

• Always "becoming," and moving towards the future, with concerns geared towards subjective goals rather than an objective past.
• Constantly striving towards what Adler calls superiority.
• Primarily motivated by social interest, with individuals seeking a sense of belonging and connection with others.
• Individuals can develop self-defeating behaviours and discouragement, which may foster neurosis, psychosis, substance abuse, or suicide when they have unrealistic or unattainable goals.
• The individual's belief about life is more important than how life actually is.

14. Describe the importance of birth order and sibling relationship in Adlerian theory.

Adlerian Theory: Importance of Birth Order and Sibling Relationships

Adlerian theory considers birth order and sibling relationships to be significant influences on an individual's development and personality. Each position within the family has its typical characteristics:

• Firstborn: Often receives a great deal of attention initially, can be dethroned by the arrival of a second child, leading to feelings of insecurity, but they can also be leaders who are responsible and high achievers.
• Second-born: Constantly strives to catch up with the older sibling, can be competitive and ambitious, and may be more adaptable.
• Middle child: Often feels squeezed out, can struggle for recognition and attention, and may feel neglected.
• Youngest child: Often seen as the "baby" of the family, can be pampered or spoiled, may develop a sense of inferiority but may also be more creative and independent.
• Only child: Does not learn to share or cooperate with other children, learns to deal with adults, and may have difficulty with social interactions but may also be very self-reliant.

15. Discuss the role of counselor in the person-centred approach.

Person-Centred Approach: Role of the Counsellor

In the person-centred approach, the counsellor's role is:

• To provide a holistic approach, promoting a climate in which the client is free and encouraged to explore all aspects of self.
• To strive to develop a greater degree of independence and integration for individuals within their surroundings and with the people in their lives.
• To facilitate the client in being open to the experience of counselling, trusting themselves, evaluating themselves internally, and pursuing a willingness towards continued growth.
• To create a therapeutic relationship based on empathy, genuineness, and unconditional positive regard.
• To understand the client's feelings sensitively and accurately and to reflect the client's experiences to help them become more self-aware and self-directed.
• To respond to the client's story and seek clarification about the client's feelings and thoughts, while also giving advice and suggestions to help facilitate personal growth.
• To avoid disagreeing with or pointing out contradictions, and not delve into the unconscious.
• To provide an environment in which clients feel free to explore and share feelings without fear of rejection.

16. Describe the goals of counseling in existential approach. 

Existential Approach: Goals of Counselling

The goals of counselling in the existential approach are:

• Not to cure disorders or eliminate symptoms, but rather to help clients become aware of what they are doing and encourage them to act and make life-changing decisions.
• To enable people to become more truthful with themselves.
• To help clients reflect upon and understand their existence.
• To increase self-awareness and authentic living.
• To help clients take responsibility for their decisions.
• To encourage clients to find their own meanings and truths.
• To help people examine the roots of their anxieties and learn to better cope with them.
• To enable people to believe in, experience, and live life more fully in each moment.

17. Explain the major principles of Gestalt therapy.

Gestalt Therapy: Major Principles

The major principles of Gestalt therapy include:

• Emphasis on the present moment ("here and now"), focusing on whatever is in the client’s awareness.
• The use of feelings, thoughts, body sensations, and actions as a guide to understand what is central for the client in each moment.
• The concept that individuals have the capacity to self-regulate in their environment.
• A belief that human beings work for wholeness and completeness in life, trying to integrate themselves into a healthy, unified whole.
• An understanding that unresolved conflicts are worked out in the counselling session as if they are happening in that moment, with an emphasis on personal responsibility for one's own well-being.
• A focus on the quality of contact between the individual and their environment.
• An emphasis on holism, looking at the whole person and the integration of thoughts, feelings, behaviours, body, and dreams.

18. Describe the assumptions of Rational Emotive Therapy about human nature.

Rational Emotive Therapy: Assumptions About Human Nature

Rational Emotive Therapy (RET) assumes that:

• Human beings are largely responsible for creating their own emotional reactions and disturbances.
• Emotions result from thoughts, not events, and that self-talk influences emotions.
• People have the capacity to be both rational and irrational, and they often hold irrational beliefs that lead to emotional distress.
• The goal is to show people how to change irrational beliefs that directly cause disturbed emotional consequences.

19. Explain the A B C D E F model of Rational Emotive Therapy.

Rational Emotive Therapy: The A-B-C-D-E Model

The A-B-C-D-E model in RET is as follows:

• A (Activating Event): This is the event or situation that triggers a reaction.
• B (Beliefs): These are the individual's thoughts, interpretations, and evaluations about the activating event. They can be rational or irrational.
• C (Consequences): These are the emotional and behavioural reactions to the beliefs.
• D (Disputing): This involves challenging and questioning irrational beliefs.
• E (Effective New Philosophy): This involves developing more rational and adaptive beliefs and emotional responses.
• (F) Further Action This is where the client puts into practice their new effective philosophy and moves towards healthier outcomes.

20. Describe the four life positions as mentioned in transactional analysis.

Transactional Analysis: Four Life Positions

Transactional Analysis outlines four possible life positions that people adopt in childhood, based on their experiences:

• I'm not OK, You're OK: A position of low self-worth and a belief that others are better.
• I'm not OK, You're not OK: A position of despair where the person feels that neither they nor others are worthwhile.
• I'm OK, You're not OK: A position of superiority where the person feels that they are better than others.
• I'm OK, You're OK: A position of healthy self-esteem and acceptance of others.

21. Discuss the role of counselor in behaviour therapy.

Behaviour Therapy: Role of the Counsellor

In behaviour therapy, the counsellor's role is:

• To act as a consultant, teacher, advisor, and facilitator.
• To help individuals learn new and more adaptable behaviours and to unlearn old, maladaptive behaviours.
• To work with the client to modify the environment to facilitate learning more adaptable patterns of behaviour.
• To involve the client in every phase of counselling, helping them reach mutually agreed-upon goals by using various techniques.

22. How does reality therapy view human nature?

Reality Therapy: View of Human Nature

Reality therapy views human nature as:

• Based on choice theory: the idea that people choose their behaviours to cope with unsatisfying relationships.
• People are driven by five basic needs: survival, love and belonging, power, freedom, and fun.
• People are neither good nor bad, but rather, are living organisms capable of experiencing a variety of behaviours and are able to learn new behaviours.
• People are responsible for their own choices and behaviours.

23. Explain the technique of reality therapy.

 Reality Therapy: Techniques

The techniques in reality therapy involve:

• Developing a relationship with the client.
• Focusing on behaviour, asking, "What are you doing?".
• Helping the client evaluate their behaviour, asking, "Is your behaviour helping you or getting you what you want?".
• If the behaviour is not working, the client makes a plan to change it.
• Getting a commitment from the client to carry out the plan.
• Accepting no excuses when the plan is not carried out, and revising the plan if needed.
• Avoiding punishment, as this does no good.
• Never giving up on the client.