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Block 2 Approaches to Assessment in Counselling

Unit 2 Approaches To Counselling: Psychodynamic And Cognitive Approaches

1) Describe the basics concepts of psychoanalysis. Explain Psychoanalytic theory in your own words.

Psychoanalytic theory, founded by Sigmund Freud, views the mind as a place of conflict. It posits that behaviour is motivated by unconscious mental processes that shape personality. Key concepts include:

• Levels of mental life: Freud proposed three levels of awareness: conscious (current awareness), preconscious (easily retrievable thoughts), and unconscious (repressed thoughts and desires). The unconscious plays a significant role in psychoanalysis.
• The Id, Ego and Superego: The id is the source of basic instincts and operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification. The ego, governed by the reality principle, mediates between the id and the external world. The superego represents internalized societal and parental values, acting as a moral compass.
• Conflicts: Problems arise from conflicts between the id, ego, and superego, and from repressed unconscious material. Psychoanalysis encourages clients to become aware of this repressed material in order to resolve these conflicts.
• Early experiences: Early childhood experiences and relationships significantly impact psychological development and adult behaviour.

In simpler terms, psychoanalytic theory suggests that our behaviour is driven by hidden desires and conflicts that we are not even aware of, stemming from our childhood experiences.

2) Discuss Sigmund Freud’s theory of personality in detail.

Freud's theory of personality is structured around three components:

• Id: The id is the primal part of the personality, present from birth. It operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate satisfaction of needs and desires. It is impulsive, irrational, and cannot distinguish between fantasy and reality.
• Ego: The ego develops from the id and operates on the reality principle. It mediates between the id's desires and the constraints of the external world. The ego uses secondary process thinking which is rational and realistic to meet the needs of the id, which differs from the id's primary process thinking.
• Superego: The superego represents the moral and ethical aspects of personality, and is developed through the internalization of societal and parental standards. It acts as a conscience, judging actions as right or wrong.

These three components interact dynamically, and imbalances or conflicts between them can lead to psychological issues.

3) Briefly describe basic concepts and techniques of psychoanalysis.

Basic concepts: As explained above, the theory is based on levels of awareness (conscious, preconscious, and unconscious), the id, ego and superego, the role of conflict, and the impact of early experiences. Techniques of psychoanalysis:

• Free association: Clients are encouraged to say whatever comes to mind, without censorship.
• Dream analysis: Dreams are seen as a way to access the unconscious, with the therapist interpreting the latent (hidden) content.
• Transference analysis: The therapist interprets feelings that clients transfer onto the therapist, which are often from past relationships.
• Analysis of resistance: Therapists help clients recognise and understand their reluctance to confront unconscious material.

4) Discuss the detailed contribution of Carl Jung and compare his theory with Freud’s theory.

Carl Jung, initially influenced by Freud, diverged to develop his own theory of personality. Key contributions of Jung include:

• Collective Unconscious: Jung proposed that in addition to the personal unconscious, there is a collective unconscious, a universal reservoir of experiences and symbols shared by all humanity.
• Archetypes: These are universal patterns and images within the collective unconscious, such as the persona, shadow, anima, animus, and self.
• Ego: The center of consciousness which maintains relations with other contents
• Persona: The social role we play
• Shadow: The repressed aspect of personality
• Anima: The feminine aspect in men
• Animus: The masculine aspect in women
• Self: the totality of the conscious and unconscious
• Psychological Types: Jung described different psychological types, including introversion and extraversion, which reflect different ways of relating to the world.

Comparison with Freud:

• Emphasis on Sexuality: Jung disagreed with Freud's heavy emphasis on sexuality, focusing instead on spirituality and the collective unconscious.
• Structure of Personality: Jung's view of personality is considered more complex than Freud's, emphasizing a balance between conscious and unconscious elements.
• Goal of Therapy: Freud encouraged clients to get aware of the material repressed in the unconscious and resolve conflicts. Jung's self is life's goal to which people constantly strive for and rarely reach.

5) Describe human nature as put forward by Jung.

Jung viewed human nature as a combination of conscious and unconscious elements. The unconscious is further divided into personal and collective unconscious. The collective unconscious contains universal symbols and archetypes. He viewed people as driven toward wholeness, or individuation, and felt that spirituality was a key part of human nature.

6) Describe the major constructs of Jung’s theory.

Jung's major constructs include:

• The Ego: The centre of consciousness and relates to other contents.
• The Collective Unconscious: A shared reservoir of universal experiences and symbols.
• Archetypes: Universal patterns and images, such as the persona (social mask), shadow (repressed aspects), anima (feminine aspects in men), animus (masculine aspects in women), and self (the totality of conscious and unconscious).
• Introversion/Extraversion: Different orientations toward the inner or outer world.
• Self: The centre of personality and the goal to which all people strive.

7) Discuss the Extraversion Introversion concept of personality according to Jung.

According to Jung, extraversion and introversion are two opposite ways of looking at the world and perceiving relationships.

• Extraverts are outwardly oriented, focusing on the external world and natural phenomena. They tend to be sociable, energetic, and may repress their feelings.
• Introverts are inwardly oriented, focusing on their internal world of thoughts and feelings. They can appear distant and cold because they are repressing their feelings.

8) Describe Alfred Adler’s Basic concepts of his theory.

Alfred Adler's basic concepts include:

• Inferiority Feelings: Adler believed that humans are motivated to overcome feelings of inferiority that stem from childhood dependence on others. These feelings motivate individuals to strive for mastery.
• Striving for Superiority: This is the motivation to achieve mastery and overcome feelings of inferiority.
• Social Interest: Adler emphasized the importance of social connection and contributing to society.
• Fictional Goals: Adler proposed that people are motivated to achieve fictional goals.
• Lifestyle: The unique patterns of beliefs, behaviours and goals a person adopts.

9) Explain Adler’s theory of counselling.

Adlerian counseling aims to encourage social interest, help clients deal with feelings of inferiority, modify their views, and change faulty motivations. It also aims to make clients aware that they should make some contribution to society. The counselling process involves:

• Establishing a Relationship: Creating a collaborative and friendly relationship with the client.
• Assessment: Gathering information through subjective and objective interviews and assessing family dynamics.
• Insight: Helping the client understand their motivations, lifestyle, and the meaning of their early recollections.
• Reorientation: Encouraging the client to develop new patterns of behaviour, with a focus on social interest and contributions to society.

10) What are the various phases through which counselling proceeds?

Adlerian counselling has clear phases:

• Establishing a Relationship: Building trust and a collaborative relationship.
• Assessment: Gathering information about the client's problems, history, family dynamics and early recollections.
• Insight: Helping the client understand their motivations, lifestyle, and the meaning of their early recollections.
• Reorientation: Encouraging new behaviour patterns and finding solutions to problems.

11) “The basic motivation for human behaviour is superiority”. Illustrate this statement with the help of basic concepts of Alfred Adler.

Adler proposed that the primary motivator for human behavior is striving for superiority. This does not mean being superior to others but rather the desire to overcome feelings of inferiority. Humans feel inferior due to their smallness and dependence from birth and strive towards mastery of their environment. This striving for superiority is a natural response to inferiority feelings, and it motivates individuals to develop their potential and strive to overcome limitations.

12) Discuss the process of counseling in the context of Adler’s approach.

The process of counseling in Adler’s approach includes:

• Establishing a collaborative relationship with the client which involves caring, involvement and friendliness.
• Subjective and objective interviews to gather the client's story, details of problems, and other relevant life dimensions.
• Assessment of family dynamics and early recollections to understand the client's lifestyle and beliefs.
• Identifying the client's priorities such as their use of superiority.
• Reorientation phase where clients make decisions and modify their goals, while therapists encourage awareness of old patterns.

13) Discuss rational emotive behaviour therapy in detail.

Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT), developed by Albert Ellis, posits that our thoughts, rather than external events, primarily determine our emotions and behaviours. REBT focuses on challenging irrational beliefs that lead to emotional distress.

• ABCDE Model:
  • A (Activating Event): An event that triggers a reaction.
  • B (Beliefs): The individual's beliefs about the event. These can be rational or irrational.
  • C (Consequences): Emotional and behavioral consequences that are results of the beliefs.
  • D (Disputing): The process of challenging and changing irrational beliefs.
  • E (Effective New Beliefs): Replacing irrational beliefs with rational ones.
• Therapeutic Process: The therapist actively challenges and disputes the client’s irrational beliefs and teaches them to think in a more rational way.
• Techniques: Therapists use a variety of cognitive, behavioural, emotive and imagery techniques. These include cognitive disputation, use of coping self statements, and behavioral techniques.

14) Describe ABC model of Albert Ellis with appropriate examples.

The ABC model in REBT, by Albert Ellis, suggests that emotional consequences (C) are not directly caused by activating events (A), but by the beliefs (B) that people hold about these events. Example:

• (A) Activating Event: A person fails a test.
• (B) Beliefs:
  • Irrational Belief: "I am a failure and will never succeed at anything."
  • Rational Belief: "It’s disappointing to fail, but it doesn't define my overall worth, I need to learn from this".
• (C) Consequences:
  • Irrational Consequences: Severe depression, anxiety, and giving up on studying.
  • Rational Consequences: Disappointment but continued effort, learning from mistakes and seeking help.

The therapist will then help the person to dispute (D) their irrational belief by teaching them that failure does not mean they are a failure, and help them develop an effective new belief (E) based on rational thinking.

15) Why are the theories of Horney and Adler called as Neo Freudian theories?

Horney and Adler's theories are considered Neo-Freudian because they both:

• Originated from Psychoanalysis: Their theories have roots in Freud’s psychoanalytic theory.
• Diverged from Freud: They moved away from Freud’s heavy emphasis on psychosexual development and placed more importance on social and cultural factors.
• Emphasized Social and Cultural Influences: Adler focused on social interest and the impact of inferiority feelings. Horney highlighted cultural and social influences as well as the need for human growth.

16) What is cognitive counselling approach?

The cognitive approach assumes that humans are thinking beings and what we think determines our feelings and actions. It posits that people can think rationally or irrationally, and that errors in thinking can cause emotional distress. Cognitive therapies focus on identifying and changing these negative or irrational thinking patterns.

17) Describe Aaron Beck’s theory.

Aaron Beck's cognitive theory suggests that an individual's thoughts, beliefs, and assumptions (schemas) about the world determine their feelings and behaviour. Beck proposed that negative schemas can lead to distorted perceptions of reality and psychological problems. He believed that normal reactions are mediated by positive cognitive schemas that enable individuals to perceive reality accurately.

• Cognitive Schemas: He used the term "schemas" to describe an individual's beliefs and assumptions about the world, people and events.
• Cognitive Distortions: These are inaccurate thought patterns that contribute to negative emotions.
• Therapeutic Process: Cognitive therapy focuses on helping clients identify their negative or inaccurate thoughts and replace them with more realistic and adaptive ones.

18) Describe Albert Ellis’ theory.

Albert Ellis developed Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT). He proposed that our emotions and behaviours are the result of our beliefs about events, not the events themselves. He developed the ABCDE model to demonstrate this process. The therapist disputes the client's irrational beliefs and helps the client to replace them with rational beliefs. Ellis' theory focused on the irrational beliefs that are at the root of most psychological maladjustment.