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Block 4 Unit 1 Principles and Process of Learning

1. Define and discuss the meaning of learning.

Learning is defined as "any relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience". It's a continuous process, with individuals constantly learning through their interactions with the environment. This change in behaviour reflects a modification of actions resulting from experience.

2. Explain the behaviouristic theory of learning.

Behaviouristic theories, also known as connectionist theories, attribute learning to the association between stimulus and response. These theories, propounded by Pavlov and Watson, focus on the role of conditioning in the learning process. They emphasise the observable behaviour rather than internal mental processes. Classical and operant conditioning are key components of this theory.

3. Elucidate the theory of social learning.

Social learning theory combines both behaviourist and cognitive elements, suggesting that individuals can learn by observing others, in addition to direct experience. Key aspects include:

• Learning through observation, where individuals acquire new behaviours by watching others.
• Vicarious reinforcement, where observers learn from the consequences of a model's behaviour.
• Cognitive factors, such as attention, expectation, and self-efficacy, also play a crucial role in social learning.

4. State the general principles of social learning.

• The general principles of social learning include:
  • Learning can occur without direct performance or reinforcement.
  • Cognitive processing is important during learning, including attention to the model and information processing.
  • People form expectations about the consequences of future behaviours based on past experiences.
  • Modeling can increase the frequency of similar behaviours.
  • Self-efficacy affects behaviour, with individuals more likely to engage in behaviours they believe they can successfully execute.

5. Discuss the contemporary social learning perspectives.

Contemporary social learning perspectives emphasise the roles of reinforcement and punishment as well as cognitive factors.

• Reinforcement can occur when the imitated behaviour leads to reinforcing consequences.
• Consequences of the model's behaviour affect the observer's behaviour vicariously, meaning that observers can learn through vicarious reinforcement.
• Self-regulation is a central concept, involving an individual's standards and goals, self-observation, self-judgement, and self-reaction.
• Self-instructions can be used to guide behaviour.

6. Delineate the cognitive factors in social learning.

The cognitive factors in social learning include:

• Learning without performance, distinguishing between learning through observation and actual imitation.
• The importance of cognitive processing during learning, particularly attention.
• Expectations formed by being reinforced.
• Self-efficacy, which involves individuals' beliefs in their capacity to learn.

7. What are the principles of learning?

The main principles of learning include:

• Reinforcement: Anything that increases the strength of a response and encourages repetitions of a behaviour. This is different from a reward which may not induce repetition.
• Schedules of Reinforcement: The patterns in which reinforcement is administered.
• Punishment: The administration of an unfavourable consequence to discourage certain behaviour.
• Extinction: This occurs when a behaviour decreases or ceases altogether when it is no longer reinforced.

8. Define reinforcement and state its characteristics and types.

Reinforcement is anything that strengthens a response and increases its repetition. It differs from a reward in that a reward is something thought to be desirable but may not encourage repetition of behaviour.

• Reinforcement can be positive or negative.
  • Positive reinforcement involves giving something desirable to strengthen a response.
  • Negative reinforcement involves removing something undesirable to strengthen a response.

9. Discuss the schedule of reinforcement.

Schedules of reinforcement involve the way that reinforcers are delivered and have a big impact on behaviour. These schedules determine when and how behaviours are reinforced. The sources do not specify specific schedules, however, they do note the important impact of reinforcement schedules on behaviour.

10. What is punishment?

Punishment occurs when an unfavourable consequence is administered to discourage a behaviour. For example, an employee being suspended without pay for showing up drunk is an example of punishment.

11. What is extinction?

Extinction is when a behaviour decreases or stops altogether because it is no longer reinforced.

12. Encapsulate the main theories of learning and try to analyse how each one differs from the other.

The main theories of learning are behaviouristic theories, cognitive theories, and social learning theory:

• Behaviouristic theories (classical and operant conditioning) focus on the connection between stimulus and response and the role of conditioning, without regard for internal mental processes.
• Cognitive theories emphasise the importance of mental processes, such as awareness, thought, and problem-solving, and the role of expectations and cognitive maps.
• Social learning theory combines elements of both behaviourism and cognitive approaches, noting that learning can occur through observation and modeling, and also considers cognitive factors like self-efficacy.

13. Analyse the main principles of learning and how they help shape human behaviour.

• The main principles of learning include reinforcement, punishment and extinction.
  • Reinforcement strengthens behaviours, encouraging repetition.
  • Punishment discourages behaviours by administering an unfavourable consequence.
  • Extinction reduces behaviours when reinforcement is withdrawn. Understanding these principles allows managers to shape employee behaviour effectively.

14. What is social learning? Elucidate the social learning theory of Bandura.

• Social learning theory suggests that people learn by observing others, as well as through direct experience. Bandura's theory highlights the role of observation, imitation and modeling in learning.
  • It considers cognitive factors like attention, memory and motivation in the learning process, along with reinforcement and punishment.
  • It also emphasises the role of vicarious reinforcement.

15. How does modeling influence learning?

Modeling influences learning by demonstrating a behaviour that others observe and imitate. It increases the likelihood that the observed behavior will be performed by the observer, especially when the model is seen as credible or successful.

16. What is self-efficacy? Discuss its effects on behaviour.

Self-efficacy is an individual's belief in their ability to complete a task successfully.

• It affects behaviour by influencing an individual's choice of activities, effort and persistence, and overall learning and achievement.
• Those with high self-efficacy are more likely to approach tasks with confidence and achieve more.

17. Discuss the principles of learning.

The principles of learning include:

• Reinforcement, which increases desired behaviors.
• Punishment, which suppresses undesired behaviors.
• Extinction, which reduces behaviors by removing reinforcement.
• Schedules of reinforcement which determines when and how reinforcements will be administered. These principles can be used to shape behaviours both in everyday life and in organisations.

18. Discuss critically the role of reinforcement in learning.

Reinforcement is a key principle in learning. It's a process that increases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated. Reinforcement can be positive or negative, both of which strengthen a behaviour.

• However, the effectiveness of reinforcement can depend on the perceived value of the reinforcement, as a reward is not always a reinforcer.
• Schedules of reinforcement are important determinants of how behaviour is modified by reinforcement.

19. Define extinction and indicate how extinction takes place.

Extinction occurs when a behaviour decreases or stops altogether when it is no longer reinforced. It results from the absence of any consequence following a behaviour, causing the behaviour to cease over time.

20. State the theory of classical conditioning .

Classical Conditioning

• Classical conditioning is a type of learning where an individual responds to a stimulus that would not ordinarily produce such a response. It is based on the association of a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response. Through this pairing, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus, and the response becomes a conditioned response.
• A classic example of classical conditioning is Pavlov's experiment with dogs.
  • Meat (unconditioned stimulus) naturally caused salivation (unconditioned response).
  • A bell (neutral stimulus) was repeatedly paired with the meat.
  • Eventually, the bell alone (conditioned stimulus) triggered salivation (conditioned response), even without the meat.
• In essence, classical conditioning demonstrates a link between a stimulus and a response (S-R).

21. In what ways operant conditioning theory is different from classical conditioning theory?

Operant Conditioning vs. Classical Conditioning

• The key difference between classical and operant conditioning lies in the nature of the behaviours involved.
  • Classical conditioning deals with involuntary or reflexive behaviours, where a stimulus is controlled to elicit a response.
  • Operant conditioning deals with voluntary or learned behaviours, where behaviours are modified by their consequences.
• In classical conditioning, the stimulus precedes the response, whereas in operant conditioning, the response is followed by a consequence that determines whether the behaviour will be repeated.
  • Classical conditioning emphasizes the association between a stimulus and a response (S-R).
  • Operant conditioning emphasizes the association between a response and a consequence (R-S).
• Operant conditioning suggests that people behave in certain ways to gain desired outcomes or avoid undesirable outcomes.

22. Elucidate cognitive theory of learning.

Cognitive Theory of Learning

• Cognitive theories of learning focus on mental processes, such as awareness, thought, and problem-solving, that influence learning. This approach emphasizes that learning involves more than just stimulus-response associations; it includes how individuals process information.
• Cognitive theories attribute learning to a person's capacity for expectations and cognitive structures, and explore how individuals approach problems.
• Unlike behaviourists who believe mental processes are unnecessary to study, cognitive theorists suggest that mental responses influence learning.
• Cognitive mapping is a key component of cognitive learning, suggesting that individuals develop mental representations of their environments that can be used to solve problems.

23. Discuss cognitive mapping as per Thorndike law of effect.

Cognitive Mapping and Thorndike's Law of Effect

• Cognitive mapping, as proposed by Edward Tolman, suggests that individuals form mental representations of their environment. These cognitive maps include spatial relationships, how to achieve a goal, and what to expect once it has been reached.
• While Thorndike's Law of Effect focuses on the impact of consequences (satisfaction or discomfort) on behaviour, cognitive mapping focuses on the internal mental representations individuals use to navigate their environment and solve problems.
• Tolman's research with rats demonstrated that animals could still navigate a maze even when the means of navigation changed, indicating that learning involved creating a mental map of the environment, not just learning a set of responses to stimuli.
• Thorndike's Law of Effect suggests that responses followed by satisfaction are more likely to be repeated, and those followed by discomfort are less likely to occur. This law is a basis for reinforcement, but does not focus on the mental representation of a situation that is central to cognitive mapping.

24. What is modeling?

Modeling

• Modeling, a central concept in social learning theory, is when individuals learn by observing the behaviours of others.
• It involves replicating the actions of a 'model', which can be a real person (live model) or a representation of a person or action through other mediums like video or tv (symbolic model).
• Through modeling, people can acquire new behaviours and also change the frequency of existing behaviours.
• Modeling can encourage previously forbidden behaviours, and it can also increase the frequency of similar behaviours.

25. What conditions are required for effective learning to occur under social learning.

Conditions for Effective Learning Under Social Learning

For social learning through modeling to be effective, certain conditions must be met:

• Attention: The individual must pay attention to the model.
• Retention: The individual must be able to remember the observed behaviour.
• Motor Reproduction: The individual must be physically and developmentally able to replicate the behaviour.
• Motivation: The individual must want to demonstrate the learned behaviour.

26. Discuss the effects of modeling on behaviour.

Effects of Modeling on Behaviour

Modeling can have several effects on behaviour:

• Teaching new behaviours: Individuals can learn entirely new skills or actions through observation.
• Influencing the frequency of learned behaviours: Modeling can either increase or decrease the likelihood of a previously learned behaviour.
• Encouraging forbidden behaviours: Modeling can reduce the inhibitions towards behaviours that were previously avoided.
• Increasing similar behaviours: Modeling can lead to the performance of similar behaviours in new contexts, for example, a student may see a friend excel in basketball and then try to excel in a different sport.

27. Discuss the various processes by which extinction occurs.

Processes of Extinction

• Extinction occurs when a previously reinforced behaviour decreases or stops completely because the reinforcement is no longer given.
• The process of extinction involves the removal of reinforcement or a positive consequence that was previously maintaining the behaviour.
• For example, if an organisation stops responding to employee complaints, the behaviour of making complaints may be extinguished.
• An important factor in extinction is that if the conditioning isn't maintained with sufficiently frequent rehearsals, the probability of the conditioned behaviour occurring will decay over time.