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Block 2 Unit 4 Aggression and Violence

1. Discuss nature and types of aggression with suitable examples.

• Aggression is defined as behaviour directed towards another individual with the intent to cause harm. The perpetrator must believe that their behaviour will harm the target and that the target is motivated to avoid the behaviour.
• Aggression can be physical, such as hitting or kicking, or it can also be verbal abuse. Damaging another's property can be considered aggression, as can a social snub.
• Accidental harm is not considered aggression because it lacks the intent to harm.
• Examples: A physical fight is a clear example of aggression. Verbal bullying or cyberbullying also fall under aggression. Intentionally damaging someone's car is also an act of aggression.
• During early childhood, aggressive behaviour is considered a normal part of development. Early aggression may be physical and later become more verbal.

2. What are the clinical classifications of aggression?

Clinical literature distinguishes between two main forms of aggression:

• "Affective," "reactive," "defensive," "impulsive," or "hot-blooded" aggression: This type is a violent response to physical or verbal aggression from others. It is relatively uncontrolled and emotionally charged.
• "Predatory," "instrumental," "proactive," or "cold-blooded" aggression: This is controlled, purposeful aggression lacking emotion, used to achieve a desired goal, such as domination.

3. Differentiate between proactive and reactive aggression.

• Reactive aggression is behaviour enacted in response to a provocation, such as an attack or insult. It is often seen in self-defensive or angry actions.
• Proactive aggression is initiated without apparent provocation, such as bullying. It is not evoked by anger but rather by other motives such as obtaining goods or asserting power.

4. Define instrumental aggression and differentiate it from hostile aggression.

• Instrumental aggression is aggression that produces a positive reward or advantage for the aggressor that is unrelated to the victim's discomfort.
• Hostile aggression is aggression where the primary goal is to inflict injury or pain on the victim. There is little or no advantage for the aggressor.
• The difference is based on the function of aggression: the goal of instrumental aggression is the reward while hostile aggression is focused on inflicting harm.

5. Explain proactive and reactive aggression.

• Reactive aggression is a response to provocation and includes self-defensive and angry behaviours.
• Proactive aggression is initiated without apparent provocation, often to achieve a specific goal or exert power.

6. What are the characteristic features of positive and negative aggression?

• Positive aggression, according to some, is seen as healthy and productive, promoting basic values like survival, protection, and happiness. It can help build autonomy and identity. A certain amount of aggression is needed for self-assertion and independence and to achieve mastery of the environment. Positive aggression may take the form of self-protection, standing up to negativity, and defending against harm.
• Negative aggression is defined as acts that result in personal injury or destruction of property. It includes attacks that harm others of the same species. Negative aggression also includes encroaching on someone's territory, or causing financial, physical or emotional damage. It is considered unhealthy because of the heightened emotions that can cause long-term damage to the individual.

7. Describe the methods by which aggression can be measured.

• Rating scales: These are completed by parents or teachers to assess the child's aggression, like the Child Behavior Checklist.
• Self-report measures: Individuals complete questionnaires to assess their own aggressive attitudes and behaviours, like the Buss-Durkee Hostility Inventory.
• Observation by trained observers: The Overt Aggression Scale measures different types of ward behaviour in psychiatric patients.
• Subtype scales: These classify different types of aggression, such as the Reactive-Proactive Aggression Questionnaire.
• Justice system data: Including police, court, and correctional agency files, self-reported delinquency, and the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R) for psychopathic personality traits.
• Clinical projective tests: such as the Thematic Apperception Test.

8. Discuss the various causes of aggressive behaviour.

• Neurophysiological factors: These include the role of neurotransmitters, with lower levels of serotonin often associated with increased aggression.
• Biological factors: This involves hormones like testosterone. Research suggests higher levels of testosterone are linked to increased aggression.
• Nutrition deficiency: Deficiencies in protein, iron, and zinc, and the presence of food additives, and hypoglycemia, have been linked to aggressive behaviour.
• Environment and genes: The environment plays a key role in regulating neurochemistry. Research suggests that early malnutrition negatively impacts brain growth and development, which may predispose individuals to antisocial and violent behavior.
• Parental rearing styles: inconsistent parental discipline and negative parent-child interactions can contribute to aggressive behaviours.
• Environmental stressors: including temperature, crowding, and noise can all increase aggressive tendencies.

9. What are the neurophysiologic factors that contribute to aggressive behaviour?

Research indicates the role of neurotransmitters in aggressive behavior. Low levels of serotonin have been associated with increased aggression in both animal and human research.

10. Put forward the biological causes of aggression.

• Hormones: Sex hormones like testosterone play a role in shaping aggression. Higher levels of testosterone have been found in aggressive individuals.
• Neurotransmitters: Low levels of serotonin have been linked to aggression.
• Brain dysfunction: Issues in specific areas of the brain are implicated in aggression.
• Nutritional deficiencies: Deficiencies in protein, iron, and zinc as well as food additives and hypoglycemia can play a role in aggressive behaviours.

11. Discuss the interaction between environment and genes in contributing to aggressive behaviour.

While genetics may play a role, the environment regulates neurochemistry. Early experiences of malnutrition can impact brain growth. Parental rearing styles, social interactions, and cultural norms also play a role.

12. Discuss the psychodynamic theory of aggression.

Freud's psychodynamic theory states that all humans have life (Eros) and death instincts (Thanatos). Conflicts between these instincts result in self-destructive tendencies that may lead to aggressive behaviour. Tension builds up in the unconscious mind needing to be released through outlets such as sport or onto others.

13. What is the frustration-aggression theory?

This theory suggests that aggression is a learned response to frustration. Frustration occurs when individuals encounter external situations that cause discomfort or anger. Dollard et al., claimed that frustration always causes aggression, and aggression is always caused by frustration.

14. What is cognitive neo-association theory? How does it explain aggression.

This theory states that aversive events produce negative affect. Negative affect triggers thoughts, memories, expressive motor reactions, and physiological responses. This theory suggests that aggressive thoughts and emotions are linked in memory.

15. Delineate social learning theory from the point of view of learning aggressive behaviour.

Social learning theory argues that aggression is learned through observation, imitation, and reinforcement. Children learn aggressive behaviours by observing aggressive role models.

16. Discuss excitation transfer theory and social information processing theories in terms of explaining aggression.

1. Excitation transfer theory suggests that arousal from one situation can transfer and intensify aggressive responses in a subsequent situation.
2. Social Information Processing (SIP) Theories suggests that aggressive individuals process social cues differently. They focus more on aggression-relevant stimuli, misinterpret others' intentions, and choose aggressive responses.

17. Put forward the general aggression model and explain aggression in terms of the same.

The General Aggression Model (GAM) integrates multiple theories of aggression by focusing on how knowledge structures operate to produce behaviour. The model is based on how knowledge structures influence perception, and how those structures guide responses to the environment. The model looks at characteristics of the person and situation, present internal state (affect, arousal, and cognition) and finally appraisal and decision making processes.

18. What kind of parent training programme will be useful in reducing aggression?

Behaviourally based programmes that directly instruct parents while they interact with their children have consistently been shown to be effective in reducing behavioural problems.

19. What are the various methods of developing a programme of intervention in Aggression?

Effective programs involve directly instructing parents and helping them to improve their interactions with their children.

20. Discuss the various other training programme for intervention in aggression and indicate if there is failure of parent training how would it affect the interventions?

Other training programmes may include cognitive behaviour therapy. If parent training fails other programs may be less effective because the home environment is a major factor in creating aggressive behaviours.

21. In what ways could one organise intervention programmes in schools for reducing aggression?

Early preventive educational programmes can be effective in reducing later aggressive behaviour.

22. Define the term aggression and discuss various types of aggression.

Aggression is behaviour intended to cause harm to another person who is motivated to avoid it. Types include: physical, verbal, instrumental, hostile, proactive, and reactive, positive and negative.

23. Describe the salient factors that contribute in the development of aggressive behaviour pattern.

These factors include neurophysiological, biological, environmental, genetic, parental rearing styles, and environmental stressors such as temperature, crowding, and noise.

24. Why do people behave aggressively as they do, critically evaluate?

People behave aggressively due to a complex interaction of internal and external factors. Biological factors, personal experiences, learned behaviours, and situational factors can all contribute to aggressive behaviour. Several theories attempt to explain aggressive behaviour and its underlying processes.

25. Compare and contrast different theoretical models of aggression.

Psychodynamic theory focuses on unconscious drives, while frustration-aggression theory links aggression to blocked goals. Social learning theory emphasizes the role of observation, imitation and reinforcement. Cognitive neo-association theory suggests that negative affect triggers aggressive thoughts and behaviours. Social Information Processing (SIP) theories highlight cognitive biases in encoding and interpreting social cues. Excitation transfer theory focuses on the transfer of arousal from one situation to another. The General Aggression Model (GAM) integrates multiple theories to explain aggression in the context of internal and external factors.

26. Design an intervention program to control aggression.

A program should include:

• Parent training: Focusing on behaviourally based strategies.
• School interventions: Early preventive educational programs.
• Cognitive behavioral techniques: To address aggressive thinking patterns.
• Pharmacotherapy: For cases with severe symptoms.
• Individualized support: To address specific needs.
• Monitoring and evaluation: To track progress and adjust interventions as needed.
• Community involvement to promote positive social norms.

27. In what ways parental rearing style and parental interaction cause aggression.

Parental rearing style and interaction can significantly contribute to a child's aggressive behaviour.

• Poor supervision, erratic or harsh discipline, parental disharmony, rejection of the child, and low involvement in the child's activities are all linked to long-term antisocial behaviour.
• Parents of antisocial children often ignore polite or considerate behaviour, but give attention when the child yells or has a tantrum. The child learns that such behaviour is effective because the parent often gives in.
• Unresponsiveness to a child’s communications and emotional needs can also contribute to the child's disturbance.

28. Discuss the parental influence on children’s emotions and attitudes and the influence that the difficulties the child has with friends in then school.

Parental influence on children’s emotions and attitudes, and the child's relationships with peers and at school can also affect aggression.

• A high proportion of toddlers who later develop conduct problems show disorganised attachment patterns, experiencing fear, anger, and distress on reunion with their parent after a brief separation. This behaviour is likely a response to frightening, unavailable, and inconsistent parenting.
• By middle childhood, aggressive children are quick to perceive neutral actions by others as hostile and have trouble judging other people's feelings. They are poor at generating constructive solutions to conflicts, believing that aggression will be effective.
• These children may lack the skills to participate and take turns without upsetting others, leading to peer rejection.
• Children who are rejected by peers may then associate with other antisocial children.
• Those with difficulty reading typically fail to get any qualifications by the time they leave school and may become unemployed.

29. Enumerate the various predisposing child characteristic factors in causing aggression.

Predisposing child characteristics that can contribute to aggression:

• Hyperactivity, also known as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, is predominantly genetically determined. Children with this restless, impulsive pattern of behaviour may provoke retaliation and get into fights.
• Delinquents have repeatedly been shown to have a lower IQ than law-abiding peers.
• Other traits include irritability and explosiveness, lack of social awareness and social anxiety, and reward-seeking behaviour.

30. What are the various environmental stressors that cause aggression?

Environmental stressors that cause aggression include temperature, crowding and noise.

• Temperature: Moderately hot temperatures (around 84°F) have been linked to increased violence, though some studies suggest violence increases steadily with temperature.
• Crowding: Higher density of people can lead to higher levels of aggression. This may be because of de-individuation and the invasion of personal space. However, some people do not find encroachment of their personal space to be a problem. There are also cultural differences in preferred personal space.
• Noise: Loud or unpredictable noise can cause aggression.

31. What is script theory? How does it explain aggression?

Script theory proposes that children learn aggressive "scripts" from observing violence in mass media.

• Scripts define situations and guide behaviour. A person first selects a script to represent the situation and then assumes a role in the script.
• Once learned, a script may be retrieved later and used as a guide for behaviour.
• Scripts are well-rehearsed, strongly associated concepts in memory involving causal links, goals and action plans.

32. Explain aggression from the point of view of social interaction theory.

Social interaction theory interprets aggressive behaviour as a way to exert social influence.

• Aggressive actions are used to produce a change in the target’s behaviour in order to obtain something of value or to exact retributive justice for perceived wrongs or to bring about desired social and self identities.
• This theory helps to explain why aggression is often the result of threats to self-esteem.

33. How will you manage hyperactivity?

Hyperactivity can be managed through specific psychological techniques and/or medication.

• Rewards should be given more contingently and more frequently and should be changed often.
• Tasks need to be broken down into smaller components.
• Specific, clear rules should be set for each situation, as these children have difficulty generalising.
• Medication such as methylphenidate or dexamphetamine may be used for children with severe symptoms at home and school.