7. What do you understand by ecological theory?

• Ecological theory states that human development is influenced by multiple levels of environmental systems.
• Ecological theory is Bronfenbrenner's view that development is intluenced by multiple levels of environmental systems, from immediate settings of family and school to broad cultural values and programmes. 

8. What is an exosystem?

An exosystem refers to social settings that do not directly contain the individual but still affect their experiences. For example, a parent's workplace can impact a child's development even though the child is not directly involved in it.

9. What does the macrosystem involve?

Macrosystem involves the culture in which the individual lives. Culture refers to the behaviour patterns, beliefs and values that are passed on from one generation to another generation.

10. Which is the fifth system propounded by Bronfenbrenner?

The fifth system propounded by Bronfenbrenner is the chronosystem, which refers to the time dimension or the influence of changing life circumstances over time. It involves the changes in ecological systems or within individuals, transitions over the life time as well as socio-historical circumstances. 

11. What is the life course perspective?

The life course perspective is a multidisciplinary approach to studying people's lives, considering structural and cultural contexts, and how these impact life trajectories across time. Life course perspective studies the importance of historical time, socio-cultural contexts and processes that affect people's life.

12. List the principles that characterise the life course approach.

The principles that characterise the life course approach are:

• Socio-historical and geographic location, 
• Timing of lives, 
• Heterogeneity or variability, 
• Linked lives and social ties, 
• Human agency and personal control, and 
• How the past shapes the future

13. What is generational time?

Generational time refers to the way that individuals and social groups experience historical time and events, shaping their views of the world. Generational time refers to the age groups or cohorts in which people are grouped, on the bases of their age.

14. What do you understand by the term 'linked lives'?

Linked lives refers to the interconnectedness of individuals within social relationships, particularly within a family, where the experiences of one person can affect the lives of others. Linked lives mean that individuals are interdependent and reciprocally connected through the family and network of shared relationships. 

15. Critically analyse the theory of hierarchy of needs by Maslow.

• Maslow's hierarchy of needs proposes that human motivation is organised into a pyramid of needs, ranging from basic physiological needs to self-actualisation. According to the sources, this is a theory that suggests humans are integrated wholes.
• While the theory is influential in understanding motivation, the sources do not offer a critical analysis.
• The theory assumes a rigid hierarchy that might not apply to everyone, as individuals may prioritize different needs at different times.
• It also may not apply to all cultures. The source material suggests that, generally, humanistic theories are reality-based and help to understand personality and improve satisfaction, but it does not give any specific limitations of Maslow's hierarchy.

16. Discuss the characteristics of fully functioning persons as stated by Carl Rogers.

According to Carl Rogers, fully functioning persons have the following characteristics:

• They are open to experience: They are receptive to new ideas and feelings.
• They live in the present moment; they are not dwelling on the past or the future.
• They have trust in their own feelings: They rely on their own judgement and intuition.
• They are creative and adaptive: They are flexible and able to adjust to new situations.
• They experience unconditional positive self-regard; this is similar to being in touch with your real self.
• Rogers’ theory emphasizes self-actualisation and the importance of the present. It also highlights the importance of therapist personality over technique, which implies a need for therapists to embody these characteristics.

17. How can you apply ethological theories in day-to-day life?

• Ethological theories, particularly attachment theory, can be applied in everyday life by understanding the significance of early relationships on later development.
• The sources emphasize that behaviours like crying, smiling and clinging are important for developing attachment.
• Awareness of different attachment styles (secure, avoidant, resistant, disorganised) can help one understand interpersonal dynamics and improve relationships, particularly parent-child relationships.
• The need for contact comfort, highlighted by Harlow's work, should be taken into account in relationships with children and others.

18. Discuss the different ecological systems of adolescents living in a school hostel. Explain with the help of a diagram.

• Microsystem: This includes the immediate environment of the adolescent such as the hostel room, peers and staff, and any clubs or teams they might participate in at school.
• Mesosystem: This includes connections between different parts of the microsystem. For example, communication between teachers, the warden, and the student's parents, or communication between the hostel and the school.
• Exosystem: This includes the broader environment which might affect the adolescent indirectly. For example, the school's administrative policies, the local community, or the parents' workplaces.
• Macrosystem: This includes the cultural values and social norms that are important to the country and region where the adolescent lives, such as education, independence, gender roles, or religious practices.
• Chronosystem: This includes the dimension of time, such as major changes in the school, changes in family circumstances, or historical events that might influence the student.
• The sources do not offer a visual diagram; this is an example based on ecological systems theory.

19. Explain the principles of life course theory in your own words.

• The life course theory, or perspective, views human development as a lifelong process shaped by historical, cultural and social contexts.
• It considers how individual lives are interconnected and influenced by experiences across time.
• The life course perspective highlights individual agency, where people actively shape their lives through their decisions and actions, and it notes that individuals' lives are embedded in particular places and historical periods.
• The timing of life events, such as marriage, parenthood and retirement, are also important for shaping an individual's life.
• The sources suggest this perspective is multidisciplinary and involves understanding how various influences interact throughout life, but they do not provide additional details.