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Unit 4 Models of Information Processing

1. Describe the Atkinson-Shiffrin model of information processing in detail.

• The Atkinson-Shiffrin model, also known as the stage model, proposes that memory consists of three distinct storage systems: sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM).
• Sensory memory briefly holds incoming sensory information. It has a large capacity but information decays rapidly, usually within a few seconds.
• Short-term memory (STM) acts as a temporary storage for information that is currently being processed. It has a limited capacity and duration, typically holding about 7 ± 2 chunks of information for around 20-30 seconds. Information in STM is either rehearsed and transferred to LTM, or lost.
• Long-term memory (LTM) is a relatively permanent store of information. It has a seemingly unlimited capacity and can hold information for very long periods. Information in LTM is stored in interrelated networks of schemas which can be activated when similar information is presented.

2. Compare information processing and level of processing models of memory.

• The information processing model (like Atkinson-Shiffrin) emphasizes the stages and storage locations of memory. It focuses on how information is moved between sensory, short-term, and long-term stores.
• The levels of processing model (Craik and Lockhart) suggests that memory is a continuum and memory durability depends on the depth of processing. Deeper, more semantic processing leads to better memory. The model also highlights that maintenance rehearsal (shallow processing) is not as effective as elaborative rehearsal (deep processing) for encoding memories into LTM.
• The models differ primarily in their focus; one emphasizes structure and flow of information while the other emphasises the quality of encoding.

3. How does a connectionist (PDP) model handle memory?

• The connectionist model (Parallel Distributed Processing) views memory as a network of interconnected processing units that are similar to neurons. These units send excitatory and inhibitory signals to each other.
• Information is not stored in specific locations, but is distributed across the network. Memory is the result of the patterns of activation across these units and the strength of connections between them. This model allows for parallel processing, where many operations occur simultaneously.

• The model is not just a model of memory, but also a model for action and the representation of knowledge.

4. What is meant by level of recall, level of processing, and self-reference effect?

• Level of recall refers to the extent to which information can be retrieved from memory.
• Level of processing refers to the depth at which information is processed. Shallow processing involves structural or phonemic analysis, while deep processing involves semantic analysis, relating it to existing knowledge or making it meaningful.
• The self-reference effect is the finding that information that is related to oneself is better remembered. This is because self-relevant information is processed more deeply and is linked to a well-developed self-schema.

5. What are the basic principles and models of information processing?

• Basic Principles: The information processing approach views cognition as essentially computational with the mind being the software and the brain the hardware. It assumes a control mechanism oversees the encoding, transformation, processing, storage, retrieval and use of information.
• Models:
  • Waugh and Norman's model: A dualistic model that distinguishes between primary (short-term) and secondary (long-term) memory.
  • Atkinson and Shiffrin’s stage model: It highlights three stages of memory including sensory, short term, and long-term memory.
  • Craik and Lockhart’s levels of processing model: It emphasises the depth at which information is processed.
  • Connectionist (PDP) model: It explains memory as a network of interconnected processing units.

6. How does organisation in long-term memory take place?

Long-term memory (LTM) is organised into schemas, which are mental models of the world. These schemas form interconnected networks of knowledge structures. Related schemas are linked together, and activating one schema activates other related schemas. This organisation facilitates the retrieval of relevant knowledge.

7. Design an experiment to compare the maintenance (shallow) and elaborate (deep) level of information processing.

• Hypothesis: Words processed at a deep level (elaborate rehearsal) will be better recalled than words processed at a shallow level (maintenance rehearsal).
• Participants: Recruit a group of participants.
• Materials: Prepare a list of words.
• Procedure:
  1. Divide the participants into two groups: a shallow processing group and a deep processing group.
  2. Present the word list to both groups.
  3. The shallow processing group will perform a task that requires only shallow processing, such as counting the number of vowels in each word.
  4. The deep processing group will perform a task that requires deep processing, such as rating how much each word relates to them personally.
  5. After the task, give both groups a surprise recall test where they write down as many words as they can remember.
• Analysis: Compare the number of words recalled by each group. The group who performed the deep processing task should recall significantly more words than the shallow processing group, supporting the idea that deeper processing leads to better memory.