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Unit 1 Theories of Intelligence - G and S Factor and the Model of JP Das

1. How did Spearman develop his two-factor theory?

Spearman developed his theory by analysing the intercorrelations between various tests of intelligence. He used a method called "tetrad difference" to argue that the correlations could be explained by a general intellective factor "g" along with specific factors "s" unique to each test.

2. How are neuropsychological concepts of Luria incorporated in the PASS theory?

The PASS theory is based on Luria's model of three functional units of the brain.

1. The first unit is responsible for arousal and attention.
2. The second unit processes information using simultaneous and successive processes.
3. The third unit is responsible for planning and regulating mental activity.

3. What were the common factors that emerged regarding the definition of intelligence in the 1921 symposium of thirteen experts?

In the 1921 symposium, the most common elements in the definitions of intelligence were: (a) higher-level abilities such as abstract reasoning, mental representation, problem-solving, and decision-making, (b) the ability to learn, and (c) adaptation to meet the demands of the environment.

4. On which elements there is maximal agreement in the Snyderman and Rothman data on 1000 experts?

The Snyderman and Rothman data showed that there was nearly unanimous agreement among experts that abstract thinking or reasoning (99.3%), problem-solving ability (97.7%), and the capacity to acquire knowledge (96.0%) were important elements of intelligence.

5. How will you operationally define the phenomenon of intelligence?

Operationally, intelligence can be defined as "what intelligence tests measure". This definition sidesteps the conceptual problem of defining the "true" nature of intelligence, instead providing a working definition based on measurement.

6. How an intercorrelation matrix is used for identifying the factors?

An intercorrelation matrix is used to identify factors by examining the correlations between different tests or subtests. High correlations between tests suggest a common underlying factor, while low correlations suggest that the tests measure different factors. Spearman used this method to propose his two-factor theory, in which all correlations between intelligence tests could be accounted for by a common, 'g' factor, along with specific, 's' factors. The method of tetrad difference was used to determine if the intercorrelations between tests were due to one general factor alone.

7. What are the two main contributions of Spearman according to Nunnally?

According to Nunnally, Spearman's two main contributions were that (1) he developed mathematical models for studying "g" and laid the foundation for factor analysis and (2) he established a scholarly tradition in the investigation of human abilities.

8. Present a critical appraisal of two-factor theory?

A critical appraisal of Spearman's two-factor theory reveals:

• Criticism: It is criticised for being purely psychometric and failing to provide a cognitive theory. Some researchers, like Thorndike, believed that the intercorrelations studied by Spearman were too small to test the question of a common factor.
• Qualitative and Quantitative Principles: Spearman proposed that intelligence depended on qualitative principles of cognition as well as quantitative principles like conative control, fatigue, mental energy, primordial potencies and retentivity.
• Support: Jensen confirmed the existence of "g" using confirmatory factor analysis and Carroll also noted its presence in her hierarchical factor analysis.

9. Why planning has been given so much importance in PASS theory?

Planning is a core component of the PASS theory because it is seen as an essential cognitive process that involves developing strategies, selecting and using strategies, and monitoring the effectiveness of strategies in problem-solving and goal-directed behavior. This includes the ability to formulate plans and actions to achieve cognitive tasks.

10. What is the main contribution of knowledge base in PASS theory?

In PASS theory, the knowledge base is viewed as the context within which cognitive processes operate. Cognition is considered a dynamic process that responds to an individual's experiences and knowledge and is subject to developmental variations. Knowledge is used in the effective processing of tasks, in the integration of knowledge with planning, attention, and simultaneous and successive processing.

11. Present a critical appraisal of PASS theory.

The PASS theory is a novel approach to assessing intelligence because it has:

• A cognitive orientation and is based on neuropsychological theories of Luria.
• A move away from conventional tests of intelligence to provide a theory-based multidimensional view of intelligence.
• Practical utility, and offers a Cognitive Assessment System (CAS) test to examine the contribution of different cognitive processes.
• The CAS has four subscales to assess a testee’s proficiency in each of the four processes – Planning, Attention, Simultaneous, and Successive - separately and collectively.

12. How do general people explain intelligence?

Laypersons use the term intelligence to denote qualities such as alertness, quickness of mind, level of academic success, status in an occupation, or the acquisition of eminence in a particular field. They may also view it as the ability to succeed in life.

13. What commonalities has Sternberg noted in the 1921 and 1986 surveys about definitions of intelligence?

Both the 1921 and 1986 surveys of experts revealed a general agreement that abstract reasoning, the capacity to acquire knowledge, and problem-solving ability are important elements of intelligence.

14. Give a historical account of individual differences.

Systematic studies of individual differences in abilities began in the third quarter of the 19th century, influenced by Charles Darwin's work.

• Francis Galton coined the term "mental test", invented the first psychological test methods to measure intelligence and ability, and founded the first test laboratory. He focused on physical and sensory tests, believing that psychological traits are inherited.
• Alfred Binet developed intelligence tests with Theodore Simon to identify mentally deficient children. He revised his test to include items for different age levels.
• William Stern suggested dividing mental age by chronological age to calculate the intelligence quotient (IQ).

15. How far is it correct to state that Spearman was concerned much more with understanding intelligence than measuring it?

Spearman was concerned with both understanding and measuring intelligence. He was critical of Binet and Simon's methods for assembling intelligence tests without considering a general factor. He used factor analysis to develop his theory of general intelligence (g) and specific abilities (s). While he did devise methods to measure 'g', his primary focus was on developing a theoretical understanding of the structure of intelligence, rather than simply a means to measure it.

16. Discuss the salient features of two-factor theory.

• Spearman's two-factor theory proposes that intelligence is composed of:
  • A general intelligence factor (g), which is common to all intellectual activities.
  • Specific factors (s), which are unique to particular tests or tasks.
• Spearman used tetrad differences to demonstrate this relationship. The theory also includes qualitative and quantitative principles of cognition.

17. Critically appraise Spearman’s two-factor theory.

• Spearman's theory stimulated significant research into identifying factors of intelligence. However, it has limitations.
  • It is criticised for its assumption of a single general factor and it ignores the possibility of group factors.
  • The theory was also criticized for its methodological limitations, as well as its lack of consideration for the influence of environmental factors.
• Despite these limitations, the theory is important because of its historical relevance in the development of theories of intelligence and its emphasis on the presence of ‘g’.

18. What constructs has PASS theory borrowed from the fields of neuropsychology and information processing?

The PASS theory is based on Alexander Luria's neuropsychological model of three functional units of the brain.

• The first unit relates to arousal and attention.
• The second unit involves simultaneous and successive processing of information.
• The third unit is responsible for planning, self-monitoring, and structuring cognitive activities.

The PASS theory is also an information processing theory because it takes into account how the input is processed before a response is given.

19. Give operational definitions of all four processes of PASS theory.

The four processes of the PASS theory are operationally defined as follows:

• Planning: Making decisions about how to solve a problem, executing an approach, activating attention, simultaneous, and successive processes, monitoring the effectiveness of the approach, and modifying it as needed.
• Attention: Maintaining appropriate cortical arousal and attention to allow for adequate vigilance and discrimination between stimuli.
• Simultaneous processing: Comprehending relationships among elements as a whole, often associated with the occipital-parietal areas of the brain.
• Successive processing: Integrating stimuli in a specific serial order, where each component is related to the next, often associated with the fronto-temporal areas of the brain.