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Unit 3 Measurement of Intelligence

1. Describe the contributions of Galton and Cattell in the development of measurement of individual differences.

• Sir Francis Galton made the first institutional effort to measure individual differences. He administered simple tests of visual discrimination, the highest audible pitch, and kinesthetic discrimination. He believed that intelligence could be measured by tests of sensory discrimination, such as the ability to discriminate between heat, cold, and pain. Galton coined the term "mental test" and founded the first test laboratory in London in 1882, where visitors could take a battery of psychological tests for a fee. He also contributed to statistics by developing the correlation method.
• James McKeen Cattell was an American psychologist who first used the term "mental test" in psychological literature in 1890. He described a number of tests to measure intellectual levels of people, including measures of muscular strength, speed of movement, sensitivity to pain, keenness of vision and hearing, weight discrimination, reaction time, and memory.

2. How did Alfred Binet contribute to the development of intelligence testing?

• Alfred Binet developed a series of tasks to measure individual differences in complex mental facilities, such as memory, imagery, imagination, attention, comprehension, aesthetic sentiment, moral sentiment, muscular strength, motor ability, and hand-eye coordination.
• In collaboration with Theodore Simon, Binet created the Binet-Simon scale, which was published in 1905.
• The 1905 scale included 30 pass/fail items that required a combination of mental and physical strategies.
• A major breakthrough was the complexity of tasks and the breadth of abilities measured as well as the ability to measure intelligence in a clinical interview setting.
• A revision in 1908 arranged items in terms of age levels, with the highest age level a child could perform successfully called their mental age.
• Binet's work had a significant impact on the development of subsequent intelligence tests.

3. Illustrate the concept of IQ.

• The concept of IQ (Intelligence Quotient) was developed by William Stern.
• Mental age, determined by performance on the Binet-Simon scale, was divided by chronological age and multiplied by 100 to get the IQ.
• IQ = (Mental Age / Chronological Age) x 100
• IQ became a standard measure of intelligence, and subsequent work on intelligence measurement is modelled after Binet's test.

4. Describe the contributions of Terman in the development of Stanford-Binet Scales.

• Lewis Terman revised the Binet-Simon scale, which was published in 1916 and was called the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale.
• Terman’s revision was the most comprehensive version of Binet’s original scale of the time.
• Terman’s procedure for standardisation was the most rigorous of the time.
• The Stanford-Binet scale included an extensive manual, both for administration of the test as well as for use as a teaching aid for understanding the test.
• The revised Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale was created by Terman with the help of Maud Merrill in 1937. It included two alternate forms, the L form and the M form, each with 129 items.

5. Describe the development of Stanford-Binet Scales. Explain the structure and interpretation of SB5.

• The Stanford-Binet Scale has undergone several revisions:
  • The third revision came after Terman’s death in 1960 and was constructed primarily by Merrill.
  • The fourth revision (SB4) came in 1986 and retained much of the content of the Form L-M edition. It was based on a hierarchical model of intelligence and assessed verbal reasoning, abstract/visual reasoning, quantitative reasoning, and short-term memory.
• The fifth revision (SB5) is used to assess intellectual ability in individuals between the ages of two and 89 years.
  • It is individually administered and contains 10 subscales.
  • The three areas assessed by the SB5 are general cognitive functioning, verbal and nonverbal intelligence, and five CHC factors.
• The five CHC factors measured are: Fluid Reasoning, Knowledge, Quantitative Reasoning, Visual-Spatial Processing, and Working Memory.
• The SB5 includes a nonverbal portion that accounts for 50% of the test and ranges across all factors.
• Scoring and Interpretation:
  • The SB5 can be hand-scored or scored with optional scoring software.
  • The ten subtest scores (scaled scores have a mean of 10, SD=3, score range 1-19) combine to form four types of composite scores: factor index, domain, abbreviated, and full scale (each with scaled score means of 100, SD=15, score range 40-160).
  • Two subtests (one verbal, the other its nonverbal complement) combine to form each factor index.
  • There are two domain scales: Nonverbal IQ and Verbal IQ.
  • Two routing subtests combine to form the Abbreviated Battery IQ.
  • The Full Scale IQ combines all ten subtests.
  • Change-Sensitive Scores (CSSs) use item response theory to convert raw scores into criterion-referenced scores.
  • The SB5 also offers age-equivalent scores and a CSS-based abbreviated battery score.
  • An extended Full Scale IQ score allows for scores below 40 and above 160.

6. Explain the difference between individual and group tests.

• Individual tests are administered to one person at a time, such as the Simon-Binet test.
• Group tests can be administered to a group of individuals at once, such as the Army Alpha and Army Beta tests.

7. What is the difference between verbal and non-verbal tests?

• Verbal tests use written language for their items and require examinees to be literate.
• Non-verbal tests or performance tests do not use language and require examinees to manipulate items in a desired manner. These tests are suitable for illiterates, children, and deaf people, and are sometimes called culture-free or culture-fair tests.

8. Describe the structure of WAIS-IV.

The WAIS-IV is structured to measure different components of intelligence.

• It consists of four index scores: Verbal Comprehension Index (VCI), Perceptual Reasoning Index (PRI), Working Memory Index (WMI), and Processing Speed Index (PSI).
• It also generates two broad scores: Full Scale IQ (FSIQ) and General Ability Index (GAI).
• VCI includes Similarities, Vocabulary, Information, and (Supplemental) Comprehension.
• PRI includes Block Design, Matrix Reasoning, Visual Puzzles, (Supplemental) Picture Completion, and (Supplemental) Figure Weights.
• WMI includes Digit Span and Arithmetic.
• PSI includes Symbol Search, Coding, and (Supplemental) Cancellation.

9. Explain how Wechsler scales are interpreted.

Wechsler scales use a deviation IQ score for interpretation.

• The deviation IQ is based on standard scores computed with the same distributional characteristics at all ages.
• This allows for meaningful comparisons among peers.
• The median Full Scale IQ is centered at 100, with a standard deviation of 15.
• In a normal distribution, approximately 68% of all adults would fall within the IQ range of 85 and 115.

10. What are the theoretical grounds on which Kaufman scales are based?

The Kaufman scales, particularly the KABC-II, are based on two theoretical models:

• Luria's neuropsychological model, which features three blocks.
• The Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) approach, which categorizes specific cognitive abilities.

11. Describe the structure and interpretation of KABC-II.

• The KABC-II is designed for ages 3 to 18 years and measures learning (long-term retrieval), sequential processing (short-term memory), simultaneous processing (visualisation), planning (fluid ability), and verbal knowledge (crystallised ability).
• It yields a Mental Processing Index (MPI) based on Luria’s model and a Fluid-Crystallised Index (FCI) based on the CHC model.
• The MPI excludes measures of acquired knowledge, while the FCI includes them.
• The examiner chooses the interpretive system (Luria or CHC) before testing, which dictates which global score is reported and whether measures of acquired knowledge are included. The manual states the CHC model should generally be preferred, and the Luria model (MPI) is preferred when testing a student with culturally or linguistically different backgrounds, or with learning disabilities.
• Structure:
  • Sequential/Gsm includes subtests like Word Order and Number Recall.
  • Simultaneous/Gv includes subtests such as Triangles, and Pattern Reasoning.
• Planning/Gf includes subtests such as Story Completion, and Rover.
• Learning/Glr includes subtests like Atlantis, and Rebus.
• Knowledge/Gc includes subtests such as Riddles, Expressive Vocabulary, and Verbal Knowledge.
• Interpretation:
  • Both MPI and FCI are standard scores, with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15.
• Subtest scores have a mean of 10 and a standard deviation of 3.

12. Explain KAIT, its structure and the scales of testing.

• The Kaufman Adolescent and Adult Intelligence Test (KAIT) is for individuals aged 11 to 85+ years.
• It integrates the concept of fluid and crystallised intelligence, notions of frontal lobe planning, and Piaget’s construct of formal operational thought.
  • The test includes a crystallised scale measuring concepts acquired from schooling and acculturation and a fluid scale measuring the ability to solve new problems.
  • The core battery includes three subtests from each scale.
  • An expanded battery is used for persons with neurological damage.
  • A mental status test is used to assess attention and orientation for persons with cognitive impairment who cannot take the full battery.

13. Define intelligence tests and explain the theoretical background of measurement of intelligence.

• Intelligence tests are designed to evaluate general cognitive functions and intellectual abilities.
• The theoretical background includes:
  • General factor theories: These theories, such as Spearman's, claim that intelligence is a general intellectual capacity common to all activities (g-factor), with additional specific factors (s-factors) for particular activities. Jensen argued the g-factor was largely inherited.
  • Multi-factor theories: These propose that intelligence is composed of multiple, distinct abilities. Examples include Thurstone's primary mental abilities, Guilford’s structure of intellect model, Gardner’s multiple intelligences, Sternberg's triarchic theory, and Vernon's hierarchical theory.

14. Describe the history of intelligence tests and present an account of the concepts of IQ and deviation IQ.

• History of intelligence tests:
  • Early efforts by Galton focused on sensory discrimination.
  • Cattell used the term "mental test" and tested measures like muscular strength and reaction time.
  • Binet and Simon developed the first practical intelligence scale to identify children with mental retardation.
  • Terman revised the Binet-Simon scale into the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale.
• IQ (Intelligence Quotient): Was proposed by William Stern. It is calculated as (Mental Age/Chronological Age) x 100.
  • This concept was first used in the Stanford-Binet tests.
• Deviation IQ: Wechsler scales use a deviation IQ, which is based on standard scores with the same distributional characteristics at all ages. It allows for more meaningful comparisons among peers.

15. Explain the types of intelligence tests with their relative advantages and disadvantages.

• Individual tests like the Stanford-Binet scales: Administered to one person at a time, allowing for detailed observation but are time consuming.
• Group tests like the Army Alpha and Beta tests: Can be administered to many people at once, allowing for rapid assessment but with less individualised information.
• Verbal tests: Require literacy and can assess acquired knowledge, but are unsuitable for those with language difficulties.
• Non-verbal/performance tests: Do not require literacy, making them suitable for diverse populations, but may not fully capture verbal abilities.
• Culture-free/culture-fair tests: Attempt to minimise cultural bias, but their effectiveness and true culture neutrality are debated.

16. Describe the development of Simon-Binet tests. Also present a detailed account of SB5.

• Development of Simon-Binet tests:
  • The 1905 scale contained 30 items and was designed to measure a range of mental abilities, including memory, attention and comprehension.
  • The 1908 revision arranged items by age level and introduced the concept of mental age.
  • William Stern suggested dividing the mental age by chronological age to calculate an intelligence quotient.
• Detailed account of SB5:
  • The SB5 is used to assess intellectual ability in individuals between the ages of two and 89 years.
  • It is individually administered, contains 10 subscales and assesses general cognitive functioning, verbal and nonverbal intelligence, and five CHC factors.
  • The five CHC factors measured are: Fluid Reasoning, Knowledge, Quantitative Reasoning, Visual-Spatial Processing, and Working Memory.
  • The nonverbal portion of the SB5 accounts for 50% of the test.
  • It provides an overall estimate of cognitive functioning, the Full Scale Intelligence Quotient.
• The test has subtest scores, factor indices, domain scores, abbreviated scores, and full scale scores.
• It offers Change-Sensitive Scores (CSSs) and age-equivalent scores.

17. Provide a historical account of development of variants of Wechsler Scales. Describe the nature, structure and interpretation of WAIS-IV.

• Historical account:
  • The first Wechsler intelligence scale appeared in 1939.
  • Wechsler scales have been developed for adults (WAIS), children (WISC), and pre-schoolers (WPPSI).
  • Each has undergone multiple revisions over time.
• Nature of WAIS-IV:
  • Wechsler viewed intelligence as both a global entity and an aggregate of specific abilities.
  • Intelligence was defined as the capacity to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with the environment.
• Structure of WAIS-IV:
  • It measures different components of intelligence through four index scores: VCI, PRI, WMI, and PSI.
  • It generates two broad scores: FSIQ and GAI.
• Interpretation of WAIS-IV:
  • It uses a deviation IQ, which is based on standard scores computed with the same distributional characteristics at all ages.
  • The median Full Scale IQ is centered at 100, with a standard deviation of 15.

18. By explaining theoretical grounds of Kaufman’s Scales present a complete description of structure and interpretation of KABC-II and KAIT.

• Theoretical grounds of Kaufman’s scales:
  • The KABC-II is based on Luria’s neuropsychological model and the CHC approach.
    • Luria's model: emphasizes three functional blocks of the brain.
    • CHC model: categorises specific cognitive abilities.
  • The KAIT integrates concepts of fluid and crystallised intelligence, frontal lobe planning, and formal operational thought.
• Description of KABC-II:
  • It measures learning, sequential processing, simultaneous processing, planning, and verbal knowledge.
  • It yields an MPI (based on Luria’s model) and an FCI (based on the CHC model).
  • The MPI excludes acquired knowledge, while the FCI includes it.
  • Subtests include Word Order, Number Recall, Triangles, Pattern Reasoning, Story Completion, Atlantis, Rebus, Riddles, Expressive Vocabulary, and Verbal Knowledge.

• Description of KAIT:
  • It is designed for individuals aged 11 to 85+, with a crystallised scale and a fluid scale.
  • The crystallised scale measures concepts acquired from schooling and acculturation, and the fluid scale measures the ability to solve new problems.
  • The core battery includes three subtests from each scale and an expanded battery used with those with neurological damage.
  • A mental status test is available for those unable to complete the full test battery.
• Interpretation:
  • Both the MPI and FCI of KABC-II are standard scores with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15.
  • Subtest scores of KABC-II have a mean of 10 and a standard deviation of 3.
  • The KAIT uses standard scores for both fluid and crystallised abilities.

19. Explain first Simon-Binet Test and its improvement over earlier tests.

The first Binet-Simon scale was created in 1905 by Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon in response to a request by the French government to develop a method for identifying children with mental retardation. This scale differed from previous attempts to measure intelligence in several ways:

• It focused on measuring a range of complex mental abilities like memory, imagery, attention, comprehension, and reasoning, rather than relying on simple sensory or physical measurements.
• It consisted of 30 pass/fail items, which were a combination of mental and physical tasks.
• It was designed to be administered in a clinical setting, as opposed to in laboratories, allowing for a more practical approach to assessing intelligence.
• It included age-graded norms, which allowed for the estimation of a child’s mental age.

The Binet-Simon scale was revised in 1908 with items arranged in terms of age levels, and again in 1911 when the scale was extended to include adults and consisted of five items for each age level, to include abilities like language and auditory processing.

The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale was developed by Lewis Terman in 1916 and included Stern’s concept of the intelligence quotient (IQ). The Stanford-Binet scale was also a more comprehensive revision of Binet's work, with rigorous standardisation procedures and an extensive manual.

20. What are the variants of Wechsler Scales?

• Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS): This scale is for adults aged 16-90 years and has been revised several times. The original scale, called the Wechsler-Bellevue, was created in 1939, and was revised in 1946. The WAIS was created in 1955 and was revised in 1981 (WAIS-R), 1997 (WAIS-III), and 2008 (WAIS-IV).
• Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC): This scale is for school-going children aged 6-16 years and was originally created in 1949, then revised in 1974 (WISC-R), 1991 (WISC-III), and 2003 (WISC-IV).
• Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI): This scale is for pre-schoolers aged 2½-7 years. It was originally created in 1967 and then revised in 1989 (WPPSI-R) and 2002 (WPPSI-III).

The Wechsler scales view intelligence as a global entity with different specific abilities. The scales use a deviation IQ score based on standard scores, which allows for meaningful comparisons between individuals of different ages.