For Seema, it could be:

1. Thinking about exams.
2. Looking at an exam timetable.
3. Sitting in a classroom before an exam.
4. Reading through the exam instructions.
5. Receiving the exam paper.
6. Starting to answer the exam.
7. Completing the exam and submitting it.
8. Waiting for exam results.

8) Explain the meaning of token economy.

Meaning of token economy:

• A token economy is a behaviour modification technique that uses systematic positive reinforcement.
• Desired behaviours are rewarded with tokens, which can be exchanged for meaningful objects or privileges.
• For example, a child might receive tokens for completing homework or behaving well in class, which can later be exchanged for a desired item or activity.

9) List out the advantages of behavioural approach in counseling.

Advantages of the behavioural approach in counseling:

• It can be effective in working with children, adults, and even animals.
• It enables clients to take charge of their behaviour.
• Clients take an active role in the change process.
• The concepts and methods are easy to understand and implement.
• It focuses on current behavioural problems in the context they occur.
• It is a practical approach that allows you to measure success.

• The intervention techniques follow a systematic, step-by-step procedure.

10) Elucidate with example the various types of cognitive distortions given by Beck.

Cognitive distortions given by Beck:

• Cognitive distortions are irrational or faulty thought patterns that can cause emotional problems.
• Examples include:
  • All-or-nothing thinking: Thinking in terms of extremes, such as "good" or "bad," with no middle ground.
  • Overgeneralisation: Drawing a general conclusion based on a single incident, e.g., "I failed this test, so I'm a failure".
  • Mental filter: Focusing only on negative details and ignoring positive ones.
  • Disqualifying the positive: Rejecting positive experiences by insisting they "don't count".
  • Jumping to conclusions: Making negative interpretations without actual evidence.
  • Magnification (catastrophising) and minimisation: Exaggerating the importance of negative things and downplaying the importance of positive things.
  • Emotional reasoning: Believing that feelings reflect reality (e.g., "I feel bad, so I must be bad").
  • Should statements: Trying to motivate oneself with "should" or "should not" statements.
  • Labelling: Assigning negative labels to oneself (e.g., "I'm a loser") instead of looking at specific actions or behaviours.
  • Personalisation: Blaming oneself for things that are not under one’s control.

11) What do you mean by irrational beliefs? Write down three irrational beliefs with example.

Irrational beliefs:

• Irrational beliefs are rigid, extreme, and illogical thoughts that lead to negative emotions and behaviours.
• Examples:
  • "I must be liked by everyone": This leads to anxiety and fear of rejection.
  • "I should always be perfect and never make mistakes": This leads to self-criticism and low self-esteem.
  • "Life should always be easy and fair": This can lead to disappointment, resentment, and frustration when facing difficult situations.

12) What is the ABCD sequence in Rational Emotive behaviour therapy?

ABCD sequence in Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT):

• REBT is a cognitive approach that focuses on identifying and disputing irrational beliefs.
• The ABCD model is:
  • A (Activating event): An event or situation that triggers a reaction.
  • B (Belief): The person's irrational belief about the activating event.
  • C (Consequence): The emotional and behavioural consequences of the belief.
  • D (Disputing): Challenging and disputing the irrational belief.

13) What do you mean by home-work assignment in cognitive behaviour therapy?

Homework assignments in cognitive behavioural therapy:

• Homework is used to encourage self-discovery and reinforce insights made in therapy.
• It helps clients test their beliefs in daily-life situations.

• It may include journaling, reviewing session notes or audiotapes, reading books or articles, or applying newly learned strategies.
• For example, a client might be asked to journal daily about situations, their thoughts and emotions surrounding them, and the behaviours that accompany them.

14) Explain and contrast the behaviour modification and cognitive therapy in counseling.

Contrast between behaviour modification and cognitive therapy in counselling:

• Behaviour modification focuses on observable behaviours and uses reinforcement and punishment to change them.
  • It is based on learning theories of classical and operant conditioning.
  • It seeks to change behaviour directly through external stimuli.
• Cognitive therapy focuses on the thoughts and emotions that lead to certain behaviours.
  • It aims to change how someone thinks about a situation.
  • It identifies and challenges faulty thinking patterns.
• Cognitive behavioural therapy combines both approaches, by changing thoughts to change behaviours.

15) As part of behavioural assessment, what are the different aspects of behaviour that we need to study? Describe with the help of an example.

Aspects of behaviour to study in behavioural assessment:

• Frequency: how often the behaviour occurs. For example, how many times a child uses abusive language in a class.
• Duration: how long the problem behaviour lasts. For example, the length of time a child uses abusive language.
• Intensity: how severe the behaviour is. For example, the level of severity of the abusive language.
• Antecedents: what comes directly before the behaviour. For example, who was present, and what the situation was when the behaviour happened.
• Consequences: what happens after the behaviour. For example, how do parents, teachers or peers respond to the behaviour.

16) Take a case example. Describe the procedure of systematic desensitization.

Procedure of systematic desensitisation:

• Systematic desensitisation is used to eliminate fears or undesirable emotions by pairing anxiety-provoking stimuli with a relaxation response.
• Steps involved are:
  • Creating an anxiety hierarchy, ranking situations from least to most anxiety-provoking.
  • Learning relaxation techniques.
  • Gradually exposing the person to the fear-producing stimuli while focusing on relaxation.
  • Over time, the fear-inducing stimuli will produce a relaxation response, instead of a fear response.
• For example, for public speaking anxiety, a person might start by speaking in front of a small group of friends and gradually work up to speaking in front of a larger group of strangers.

17) Give three examples of children’s behaviour in classroom learning situations where token economy can be used.

Examples of token economy in classroom learning situations:

• A child receives tokens for completing assignments on time.
• A child receives tokens for participating positively in group activities.
• A child receives tokens for following class rules and behaving appropriately.

18) Briefly explain Beck’s cognitive behaviour therapy,

Beck's cognitive behaviour therapy:

• This therapy assumes that an individual’s emotions and behaviour are the outcome of the way in which he thinks about the world.
• It focuses on identifying our faulty or irrational thought patterns and making them conscious.
• The patient learns to recognise when they are about to perform an undesirable behaviour and replace it with a more desired thought or behaviour.
• It aims to change clients’ unhealthy behaviour through cognitive restructuring (examining assumptions behind the thought patterns) and through the use of behaviour therapy techniques.
• CBT is a treatment option for a number of mental disorders, including depression, dissociative identity disorder, eating disorders, generalised anxiety disorder, hypochondriasis, insomnia and obsessive-compulsive disorder.

19) Describe the ABCD model of Rational Emotive Behaviour therapy with an example.

ABCD model of Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT)

• A (Activating Event): This is an event or situation that triggers a person's reaction. For example, a student receives a low grade on an assignment.
• B (Belief): This is the person’s irrational belief about the activating event. For instance, the student might think, "I am a failure if I don't get good grades".
• C (Consequence): These are the emotional and behavioural consequences of the irrational belief. The student might feel anxious, depressed, and avoid studying in the future.
• D (Disputing): This involves challenging and disputing the irrational belief, and replacing it with a more rational belief. For example, the therapist might ask the student, "Is it true that you are a failure if you don’t get good grades? Is there anything else that makes you a good student? Are there other factors that may have contributed to you getting a low grade?” and the student might then conclude, "It's not true that I am a failure if I don’t get good grades, I can improve by trying harder and seeking help”.

20) List out five problems found among school children and describe the behaviour and cognitive techniques you will use for any three of them.

Five problems among school children and techniques to address them:

• Problems:
  1. Test anxiety: Excessive worry and fear about exams.
  2. Social anxiety: Fear of social interactions and being judged by others.
  3. Impulsivity: Acting without thinking, often leading to negative consequences.
  4. Inattentiveness: Difficulty focusing and staying on task.
  5. Aggression: Physical or verbal behaviour intended to harm or intimidate others.
• Techniques:
  1. Test anxiety: Cognitive behaviour therapy to identify and challenge negative thoughts, and relaxation techniques to reduce physical symptoms.
  2. Social anxiety: Systematic desensitisation to gradually expose the child to social situations, self-assertion strategies to help them stand up for themselves.
  3. Impulsivity: Self-instructional training to teach the child to think before acting, and cognitive strategies to control behaviour and manage emotions.

Important Points

1. Cognitive therapy places emphasis on thoughts.
2. Cognitive therapy achieves its aim through cognitive restructuring.
3. The irrational thought patterns are also called cognitive distortions.
4. Behaviour modification involves the reduction of undesirable behaviours.
5. Behaviour modification makes use of the principle of reinforcement to bring desirable changes in behaviour.
6. The basic premise of behaviour modification is that ‘if a behaviour is learned, it can be unlearned’.
7. Behaviour is described in terms of behavioural excesses and behavioural deficits.
8. Frequency refers to the number of times a behaviour occurs.
9. Antecedent describes the things that occur before the occurrence of the problem behaviour.
10. In the ABC model of behaviour analysis, C refers to consequence.
11. Behavioural approach in counseling focuses on the present events.