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Block 3 Positive Cognitive States and Processes

Unit 8 Self and Related Concepts

1. Define self-concept. Differentiate between self-as-subject and self-as-object.

1. Self-concept is the basic notion of who we are, encompassing our physical, emotional, social, and spiritual aspects.
2. Self-as-subject refers to the 'I', the aspect of self that is the active agent, having experiences. Self-as-object refers to the 'Me', the aspect of self that is being observed and evaluated, and which holds our various attributes.

2. Explain the concepts of the real self and the ideal self. How is the discrepancy between them related to self-esteem?

• The real self is who we actually are, encompassing our current qualities, attributes and characteristics. The ideal self is who we would like to be, embodying our aspirations, values and goals.
• A significant discrepancy between the real self and the ideal self often leads to lower self-esteem because the individual perceives themselves as not meeting their own standards or potential. Conversely, a smaller gap can lead to higher self-esteem, signifying a greater sense of self-acceptance.

3. What is self-esteem? Discuss the various strategies to enhance it.

• Self-esteem is the evaluation or judgment about our own worth or value. It's how much we like and accept ourselves.
• Strategies to enhance self-esteem include:
  • Unconditional self-acceptance: Accepting ourselves as we are, without needing external validation.
  • Focusing on strengths: Identifying and using our positive attributes and abilities.
  • Setting realistic goals: Achieving achievable goals builds confidence and self-worth.
  • Positive self-talk: Using positive affirmations and thoughts to challenge negative beliefs about ourselves.
• Avoiding social comparison: Recognizing that each individual is unique, and avoiding comparing ourselves to others.

4. Explain the meaning of self-efficacy. How does it influence our behaviour?

• Self-efficacy is an individual's belief in their capacity to execute behaviours necessary to produce specific performance attainments. It’s about believing in our ability to succeed in specific situations or accomplish specific tasks.

• Self-efficacy influences behaviour by affecting:
  • Choice of tasks: Individuals are more likely to engage in activities where they feel confident and competent.
  • Effort and persistence: Higher self-efficacy leads to more effort and persistence in the face of challenges.
  • Resilience: Individuals with high self-efficacy are more resilient in overcoming setbacks.
  • Motivation: A strong sense of self-efficacy increases motivation to pursue goals.

5. What is self-regulation? Discuss the various steps and strategies to enhance it.

• Self-regulation is our ability to organise and monitor our own behaviour in accordance with our goals. It’s about controlling our impulses, managing our emotions and directing our actions.
• Steps and strategies to enhance self-regulation:
  • Setting clear goals: Defining specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART) goals.
  • Planning and organising: Creating a plan to achieve our goals.
  • Monitoring progress: Regularly checking how close we are to reaching our goals.
• Using effective learning strategies: Employing strategies that aid in learning such as time management and focused attention.
• Self-reinforcement: Rewarding ourselves for positive behaviours.
• Seeking feedback: Asking for feedback to improve our performance.
• Adjusting strategies: Modifying our approach when needed to ensure progress.

6. Differentiate between individualistic perspective of culture from the collectivistic perspective with examples.

• Individualistic cultures, primarily found in Western societies, emphasise the autonomy and independence of the individual. In these cultures, people are viewed as separate entities with clearly defined boundaries. The focus is on personal goals, achievements, and self-expression. For example, in an individualistic society, people might prioritise their own career advancement over family needs, or value personal opinions over group consensus. Relationships tend to be more contractual and open-ended.

• In contrast, collectivistic cultures, common in many Eastern and Asian countries including India, emphasise interdependence and the interconnectedness of individuals. The self is defined in relation to others, such as family, community, and social groups. Group harmony, social responsibility, and loyalty are highly valued. For example, individuals in a collectivist society might make career choices that benefit their family, prioritise group needs over personal desires, or seek to maintain social harmony rather than express individual opinions directly. Relationships are often contextualised and depend on time, place, and person. In Indian culture, the boundary between self and others is not clearly defined and can extend to include family and friends.

7. Explain the importance of congruence between the ideal self and the real self with examples.

• Congruence refers to a state where our ideal self (who we aspire to be) and our real self (who we actually are) are closely aligned. This alignment is essential for self-esteem and a healthy, fulfilling life. When there's high congruence, individuals experience a sense of wholeness, authenticity and acceptance.

• Incongruence, on the other hand, arises when there is a large discrepancy between the ideal and real selves. This can lead to feelings of low self-esteem, anxiety, and maladjustment. For example:

  • An individual who aspires to be a highly successful entrepreneur (ideal self), but sees themselves as lacking in initiative and drive (real self) is likely to experience incongruence and feelings of inadequacy.
  • A child who has an ideal self as 'obedient' and behaves so, based on feedback from parents, may develop incongruence if his real self includes some mischief.
  • Conversely, an individual who sees themselves as both creative and artistic (real self) and aspires to be a successful artist (ideal self) will have a high degree of congruence and experience positive well-being.

• Unconditional positive regard from others, particularly during childhood, can help individuals achieve greater congruence. This involves accepting and valuing individuals for who they are, regardless of their perceived shortcomings or failures. When people feel accepted they develop a caring attitude toward themselves and are more likely to integrate all aspects of their personality and bridge the gap between their real and ideal selves.

8. Explain the concept of self-efficacy and suggest ways to develop it among children.

• Self-efficacy, as proposed by Albert Bandura, refers to an individual’s belief in their ability to succeed in specific situations or accomplish specific tasks. It's a belief in one's own competence to execute a plan of action and control life outcomes. Individuals with high self-efficacy believe they have the capacity to deal with particular situations and accordingly put in the required effort. Those with low self-efficacy believe that their ability to impact outcomes is low and attribute success to external factors.

• Self-efficacy significantly influences motivation, task choice, effort, persistence, and resilience.

• Here are ways to develop self-efficacy in children:

  • Mastery experiences: Creating opportunities for children to experience success through mastering tasks builds confidence in their abilities. This could involve setting achievable goals and celebrating accomplishments.
  • Vicarious experiences: Exposing children to positive role models who demonstrate high self-efficacy can help them learn through observation and imitation.
  • Social persuasion: Providing positive feedback and encouragement to children. When others express belief in a child’s capabilities, the child is more likely to adopt a similar view. This should be authentic rather than inflated or unrealistic praise.
  • Emotional and physiological states: Teaching children to manage their emotions and physiological arousal is important. High levels of arousal can hinder self-efficacy. Relaxation and mindfulness techniques can help in regulating stress and promoting positive feelings.
  • Positive mindset: Encourage children to believe that their abilities are not fixed but can grow through effort and learning. A growth mindset will motivate children to embrace challenges and view failure as a learning opportunity.

9. Define self-regulation and describe different techniques to develop self-control.

• Self-regulation is the ability to organise and monitor one's own behaviour, thoughts, and emotions to achieve desired goals and outcomes. It involves controlling impulses, managing emotions effectively, and making decisions aligned with long-term goals and values. It differs from self-control, which is the suppression of desires, whereas self-regulation involves employing appropriate strategies towards desired outcomes.

• Self-regulation involves both goal intentions (desired outcome) and implementation intentions (strategies to reach the goal). Self-regulated learning involves the cognitive, motivational, and emotional aspects of learning.

• Techniques to develop self-control:

  • Self-observation: Being mindful and observant of one's own behaviour, thoughts and emotions to gather information that is helpful to change, adapt or strengthen certain aspects of self.
  • Self-instruction: Using internal dialogues and self-talk to guide behaviour. This involves talking through plans and strategies.
  • Self-reinforcement: Rewarding oneself for behaviours that have positive consequences.
  • Planning and setting goals: Breaking down large goals into smaller, manageable steps.
  • Delaying gratification: Learning to wait for rewards and resist immediate impulses is a key aspect of self-control.
  • Developing habits: Consistently practicing desired behaviours to make them more automatic and reduce the need for conscious control.
  • Environmental control: Structuring the environment to reduce exposure to temptations and distractions.
  • Metacognition: Monitoring one's thought processes to become more aware of negative thinking patterns.

These techniques can help individuals become more effective in regulating their behaviours, and emotions and in reaching their goals.

Important Points

1. If a person says, “I am good in studies”, s/he is referring to her/his personal self, as it relates to a personal attribute or ability.
2. When an individual says that s/he belongs to South India, s/he is referring to her/his social self. This statement refers to the individual's social or cultural self, which is tied to their group identity.
3. The self as a whole is made up of individual’s thoughts and feelings, experiences and ideas.
4. The 'self' is considered to be learned, dynamic, and organised.
5. “Self-concept is a basic notion about who we are in terms of physically, emotionally, socially, spiritually” - Neill
6. Carl Rogers developed the concept of the ideal self and the real self.
7. The greater the gap between the ideal self and the real self, the less harmony there is within the self.
8. Self-concept - basic notion about who we are
9. Self-esteem - judgment about our own value or worth - our perception and ideas about our capabilities and qualities
10. Self-efficacy - the belief that one is capable and can control events
11. Self-regulation - ability to monitor and organise behaviour
12. Real self - who we actually are.
13. Self as a subject - described as a doer who is doing something
14. Self as an object - self gets affected by others
15. Collectivistic culture - do not have clearly defined and fixed boundaries
16. The individual's belief that s/he is capable and can control what happens to her/him is known as Self-efficacy.
17. According to Rogers, Self-actualizing tendencies drive all human behaviour to achieve at their fullest level of potentials.
18. Self-regulation refers to our ability to organise and monitor our own behaviour.
19. Self-regulation is important for achieving both short and long term goals.
20. The two aspects of self-regulation are goal intentions and implementation intentions.
21. The techniques to develop self-control include self-observation, self-instruction, and self-reinforcement.