19. Discuss some of the examples of defence mechanisms you use in day-to-day life.

• Defence mechanisms are unconscious methods the ego uses to distort reality to protect itself from anxiety.
• Repression is described as the most powerful and pervasive defence mechanism, where unacceptable id impulses are pushed out of awareness and into the unconscious mind. The sources suggest that early childhood experiences, often perceived as sexually charged, can be repressed due to their threatening nature.
• Identification: where an individual imitates successful peers or significant others to reduce anxiety related to personal shortcomings; 
• Projection, which involves attributing one's unacceptable impulses onto others; 
• Rationalisation, where people justify their unacceptable behaviours or ideas; 
• Regression, where an individual reverts to earlier, more comfortable patterns of behaviour.

20. Critically analyse the psychosocial stages given by Erik Erikson.

• Erikson’s psychosocial theory is a modification and extension of Freudian theory. Erikson's theory is described as having an emphasis on the ego as the basis of human behaviour and functioning, rather than the id. The theory encompasses the entire lifespan, from infancy to old age, and focuses on ego qualities or virtues that emerge at various developmental periods.
• Erikson's stages are presented in terms of basic ego qualities that emerge, with each stage named according to possible outcomes which are polar opposites. The source notes that each stage also features a corresponding ritualisation, a culturally patterned way of experiencing something, which if it becomes rigid, can become a negative ritualism.
• Erikson's psychosocial stages start from basic trust versus mistrust in infancy, through to ego integrity versus despair in old age. Each stage is described with possible outcomes, challenges and virtues associated with it, such as purpose in the initiative versus guilt stage, or identity and role confusion in the adolescence stage.

21. How are the neo-Freudian theories different from Freud's theory? Please discuss each theory.

Neo-Freudian theories were developed by psychologists who worked on Freud's theories but introduced their own ideas and approaches. 

The key differences and contributions of neo-Freudian theories:

• Erik Erikson: Erikson's theory of ego development spans the entire lifespan and emphasises the ego as the basis of human behaviour rather than the id. He introduced the idea of an identity crisis as a key focal point for each stage of development.
• Carl Jung: Jung developed analytical psychology which differs from Freudian theory. He theorised that the psyche consists of the ego, the personal unconscious, and the collective unconscious. Jung's concept of the collective unconscious includes archetypes, which are primitive images that reflect the history of our species. The process of individuation, a concept in Jung’s theory, refers to the realisation of self by integrating opposing forces in the psyche.
• Alfred Adler: Adler created individual psychology, and his theory emphasises the importance of the individual and their motivation. Adler's concept of social interest refers to feelings of empathy for others, and he also introduced the idea of fictional goals which cannot be tested against reality, but exert influence on people.
• Horney rejected Freud's concept of penis envy and focused on socio-cultural factors that influence personality. Sullivan is described as believing that personality can continue to develop well into adulthood, unlike Freud. Kakar's work explores the Indian perspective on psychoanalysis.